In this and the next section on dangerous rear-fanged and fangless snakes, we describe the 130-plus species of dangerous snakes known from Africa. Each subsection starts with a brief overview of the family, a key where relevant, the subfamily (where relevant) and a generic introduction, including a synopsis of the venom and its effects. Each species is described under the following headings: Identification, Habitat and Distribution, Natural History and Medical Significance, and Taxonomic Notes where relevant. All species are accompanied by a map and photographs, where available.

A family of dangerous snakes with long, perfectly tubular, folding venom fangs, and of international medical significance. The vipers or adders (the names are interchangeable, although it is suggested that the name adder be restricted to those that give birth to live young) are split into three subfamilies: the Viperinae (Old World vipers), Crotalinae (pit vipers of America and Asia) and Azemiopinae (two species in one genus, curious slim Asian vipers).

Subfamily Viperinae Old World vipers

A subfamily of 13 genera and just over 100 species, found in Asia, Europe and Africa; five genera are confined to Africa and six are in both Africa and Asia. At present, some 56 species occur in Africa. The various genera, and most of the species, can be readily identified in the field using a combination of appearance, size, locality and behaviour, but we have provided technical keys below. Viper venoms tend to cause shock and have local cytotoxic or systemic haemorrhagic effects, although the venoms of some of the small southern African Bitis (and in particular the Berg Adder, Bitis atropos) are neurotoxic.

A tropical African genus of attractive, largely green, broad-headed vipers. Most are arboreal and inhabit forest and dense woodland. They are small, never longer than 80cm. They are usually regarded as medically insignificant and appear to cause very few documented snakebites in Africa. This is for a number of reasons: they are secretive and live largely in trees, often in inhospitable areas (although they may be relatively common), and they are rarely on the ground near habitation at night or moving through farmland (although, being in a tree, if confronted they are more likely to deliver a bite to the upper body, a risk noted with arboreal pit vipers in South America).

No antivenom is produced against their bite, although African carpet viper (Echis) antivenoms seem to provide paraspecific neutralisation of their venoms. However, two species have large ranges, namely the Green Bush Viper (Atheris squamigera) and Western Bush Viper (Atheris chlorechis). The Green Bush Viper has caused some fatalities (although none with any thorough clinical details), and some alarming symptoms have been experienced following bites by the Western Bush Viper and Great Lakes Bush Viper (Atheris nitschei). So perhaps they are more dangerous than they are given credit for; a viper that feeds on mammals may well have venom that is very toxic to humans. Several bites to herpetologists and snake keepers are documented. The venom appears to be locally cytotoxic, and bites result in pain (often intense), swelling, shock, incoagulable blood and necrosis. Any doctor dealing with a bush viper bite should consider pain relief, testing for clotting abnormalities, and the possible necessity of blood transfusions. As mentioned, the use of antivenom prepared for carpet vipers can be considered.

At present, at least 15 species of bush viper are known; nine were known when the original edition of this book was published, although there is debate about the status of some forms. Their evolutionary scenario is interesting; probably one or more ancestral forms occurred through the great Central African forest, and the subsequent shrinking of the forest left populations isolated in hilltop and other relict forest patches; these populations then accumulated changes. Several forms can be instantly identified to species by their locality. These small snakes show a remarkable similarity in colour and body form to the arboreal pit vipers of Asia and Central and northern South America – an example of convergent evolution.

Identification: A small, stout brown forest-dwelling viper endemic to the Udzungwa and Ukinga Mountains, Tanzania. Unusually for a bush viper, it is terrestrial and thus adapted by being brown and not having a prehensile tail. It has a triangular head with a distinctly short and rounded snout; the tail is short and non-prehensile. The scales of the head and body are strongly keeled; in 19–23 rows at midbody; ventrals 115–127; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 15–23. Total length of largest male 35.2cm, largest female 36.9cm; the smallest snake examined was 16.4cm long. The body is brown to dark olive above, with a pair of zigzag, pale yellow dorsolateral stripes that extend from the back of the head to the end of the tail. An irregular chain of darker rhombic blotches may be present on the back. Faint black chequering may be present on the tail. The ventrum is greenish white to olive. Females may be more speckled than males.

Habitat and Distribution: An enigmatic Tanzanian endemic, from the hills of southern Tanzania, found in mid-altitude woodland of the Udzungwa and Ukinga Mountains at around 1,700–1,900m, in thick bush and bamboo undergrowth, but also found in fields and gardens of tea farms. Known localities include Bomalang’ombe, Dabaga, Kifulilo, Lugoda, Massisiwe and Mufindi in the Udzungwa Mountains, and Madehani and Tandala in the Ukinga Mountains. Very little is known about the ecology and habitat requirements of this species; it would appear to be forest-dependent, and while it may be found in forestedge situations, such as tea plantations, or occasionally in fields, it is unlikely to survive in the absence of forest nearby, nor is it likely to survive extensive forest destruction.

Medical Significance: Unlikely to be significant, due to its small range, rarity and small size. Nothing is known of the venom, but it is unlikely to be life-threatening. No bite cases are documented.

Barbour’s Short-headed Viper, Atheris barbouri.

Identification: A large bush viper that is variable in colour, from the forests of western Central Africa; first described in 1999. The head is broad, triangular and covered in small, strongly keeled scales. The small eye, with a vertical pupil, is set far forward. The tail is long and prehensile, 13–18% of total length (shorter in females). The scales are keeled; in 17–23 rows at midbody; ventrals 157–169; subcaudals 45–61 (higher counts in males). Maximum known size 77cm, average probably 45–65cm; hatchling size unknown, but probably 15–20cm. The colour is dull green or rufous; greenish animals have yellow cross-bars, and rufous animals dark cross-bars. The underside is sky blue, suffused with white, and darkening towards the tail. Juveniles have a whitish tail tip. Specimens from the eastern side of the range have a dark bar behind the eye, which broadens towards the back of the jaw.

Natural History: A largely arboreal, nocturnal, slow-moving snake, it waits in ambush among vegetation, but has been found on the ground after rain. It has been observed to be relatively common in parts of its range (24 specimens were collected in 48 hours in Cameroon; the sample contained more females than males). Mating in captivity was in late June and early July, and 8–13 offspring were observed.

Medical Significance: Might be a significant hazard due to its large size (for a bush viper), relative abundance in parts of its range and willingness to hunt on the ground, but no bites or symptoms are documented. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, ensuring the bitten limb is comfortable, and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Broadley’s Bush Viper, Atheris broadleyi.

Habitat and Distribution: Lives in forest and woodland at low to medium altitude, below 700m in the Udzungwa National Park, but over 2,000m in the Usambara National Park. This species is endemic to Tanzania, known only from the Usambara, Nguru, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains. A forest-dependent species, but much of its habitat is in protected areas.

Natural History: Theoretically nocturnal; certainly both terrestrial and arboreal. Most specimens have been collected during the day when animals are either basking or are detected by their movement as they crawl on the forest floor. In captivity, some individuals remain motionless for weeks on the same branch. It is usually found on the ground, or coiled in a clump of vegetation up to 2m above the ground. Most specimens have been found between January and April, when it is warm; during the colder months, when minimum temperatures may drop to 6°C, the animals may go into a period of inactivity, if not true hibernation. Few details are available on its feeding in the wild; amphibians and lizards are recorded, but captive specimens take mice readily. Limited evidence suggests that breeding takes place in September and October; young have been found in April, and captured females gave birth in March. The scientific name refers to the hornlike scales (cerato = horn).

Medical Significance: Unlikely to be medically significant, being uncommon and living in remote montane forests. A known bite case caused minor pain and discolouration at the bite site. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, keeping the bitten limb comfortable and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Horned Bush Viper, Atheris ceratophora.

Habitat and Distribution: Lives in forest and thick woodland at low to medium altitude, from sea level to 560m. A forest-dependent species, although it will utilise secondary forest and abandoned farmland in forest. It occurs from Sierra Leone and southern Guinea eastwards to Ghana; there are a couple of records from Togo and extreme south-west Nigeria.

Medical Significance: This snake has a large range, but being arboreal and secretive it probably causes few bites. Little is known of the toxicity or composition of the cytotoxic venom, but it can cause severe symptoms, and yields of up to 100mg of wet venom have been reported. In a documented bite case by a captive snake, the victim experienced severe swelling, pain and coagulopathy. Impending compartment syndrome prompted a fasciotomy, but the victim then lost 5 litres of blood in six hours. Six vials of Fav-Afrique antivenom stopped the blood loss (although this antivenom was not raised using Atheris venom), but acute kidney injury had occurred and full renal function took three weeks to return. A bite from an Ivory Coast snake caused intense pain, swelling and major necrosis, and required surgical intervention. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, keeping the bitten limb comfortable and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Western Bush Viper, Atheris chlorechis.

Habitat and Distribution: Endemic to the central highlands of Kenya, in mid-altitude evergreen forest between 1,000m and 1,800m. There are three populations: one in the Ngaia (Ngaya) Forest, at 1,000m on the north-east flank of the Nyambene Range; one around Igembe, at 1,300m in the northern Nyambene Range; and one in forest just west of Chuka, south-eastern Mount Kenya, between 1,500m and 1,800m. It might be more widespread in the relatively unexplored forests around the central highlands. This is a snake under threat from collecting for the pet trade and deforestation. Its distribution needs investigation and, if feasible, an area of its habitat needs rigorous protection.

Natural History: A slow-moving arboreal snake. Its activity patterns are not known; it might be diurnal or nocturnal, or both. It is usually found draped in low vegetation, around 2–3m from the ground, around the edges of small clearings in forest, but has been seen 15m up a tree. The Ngaya specimen was in a lantana bush at the forest edge. Some Nyambene specimens were in yam plantations. This species is perfectly camouflaged and difficult to observe. It is very willing to strike when first caught, and will form C-shaped coils like a carpet viper; the coils are shifted against each other in opposite directions, producing a hissing sound, like water falling on a hot plate. It struggles fiercely in the hand, but soon tames in captivity. Little is known of its biology, but it appears to feed on small mammals. A female from the Nyambene Range gave birth to 13 young in August; the smallest was 17.5cm and the largest 21.1cm.

Medical Significance: Unlikely to be medically significant, being uncommon and living in remote montane forests. A known bite case caused swelling and pain. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, keeping the bitten limb comfortable and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Mount Kenya Bush Viper, Atheris desaixi.

Identification: A small, slim bronze-coloured West African bush viper with spiky scales, first described in 2002 and known solely from two males, from Ivory Coast and Liberia. The head is short and ovoid, the eye is huge with a vertical pupil, and the neck is thin. There are many small scales on top of the head; the scales are noticeably raised and elevated anteriorly, particularly on the head and neck. The body is subtriangular in section and the tail is 19–20% of total length. The scales are strongly keeled; in 15–16 rows at midbody; ventrals 159–160; subcaudals 58. The dorsal scales are very elongate and taper to an elevated point. The two specimens were 43cm and 48cm long. The colour is bronze, with yellow-and dark-tipped dorsal scales forming a series of light and dark cross-bars; the underside is brownish, sparsely suffused with golden yellow.

Natural History: In general appearance this snake resembles the Rough-scaled Bush Viper (Atheris hispida) and its habits are probably similar; that is, primarily nocturnal, mostly arboreal, gives birth to live young and feeds on small vertebrates. However, nothing is actually known. The type was described as ‘more aggressive’ than the sympatric Western Bush Viper (A. chlorechis).

Medical Significance: Nothing known. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, ensuring the bitten limb is comfortable, and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Hairy Bush Viper, Atheris hirsuta.

Habitat and Distribution: Associated with forest, woodland and thicket, sometimes in waterside vegetation at 900–2,400m. It has a bizarre, disjunct distribution. There is one Tanzanian (Minziro Forest, north-west) and one Kenyan (Kakamega Forest) record. In Uganda, it is known from forest patches around Mityana and in the south-west Ruwenzoris, in Kigezi Game Reserve and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. There are no Rwandan or Burundi records, but there is a cluster of records in the eastern DR Congo, from the Ituri Forest southwards to Lutunguru, Rutshuru and Bunyakiri, west of Lake Kivu. It probably occurs in forest and forest patches in the intervening areas.

Natural History: Poorly known. It is arboreal and an expert climber, moving relatively quickly through the branches. It lives in tall grasses, Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), bushes, creepers and small trees. In Kakamega Forest, these snakes were found slightly higher up than the sympatric Green Bush Viper (Atheris squamigera), in drier bushes, but were also found in reeds. It will bask on top of small bushes or on flowers. Although probably nocturnal, it will opportunistically strike from ambush if prey passes by. It is an irascible snake, struggling furiously if held, and forming the body into C-shaped coils like the Mount Kenya Bush Viper (A. desaixi). Its mouth is often full of small back mites. It gives birth to live young, with clutches of 2–12 recorded; two Kakamega females had clutches of two and nine young in mid-April, the time of highest rainfall. The diet is not well known; the holotype had a snail in its stomach, while captive specimens take rodents and tree frogs. Population numbers of this species in Kakamega seem to peak and crash, for reasons as yet unexplained; in some years they are abundant, while in others they cannot be found.

Medical Significance: The venom is unstudied and no bite cases are documented.

Rough-scaled Bush Viper, Atheris hispida.

Identification: A small, slim bush viper, described in 1998 from a single specimen from Uganda and not seen since. The head is subtriangular, the eye fairly large, the pupil vertical and the iris mottled green, with gold bordering the pupil. There are many small scales on top of the head. The body is subtriangular in section and the tail is 18% of total length. The scales are keeled; in 14 rows at midbody; ventrals 160; subcaudals 54. The dorsal scales are very elongate and taper to a point (the name ‘acuminate’ means tapering to a point). The specimen was 44cm long, with the tail 8.1cm, and yellow-green above, with a vague H-shaped black marking on the crown and a short black blotch behind the eye. The tail was black-blotched and the belly pale greenish yellow, black-blotched posteriorly.

Habitat and Distribution: Described from Kyambura Game Reserve, adjacent to Queen Elizabeth National Park, just south of Lake George, Uganda, at an altitude of 950m, in riverine forest. There is little data in conservation terms, but it was found in a protected area.

Natural History: Nothing known. If it is a valid species, it is probably similar to the Rough-scaled Bush Viper (Atheris hispida).

Medical Significance: Nothing known.

Taxonomic Notes: This snake is virtually identical to the Rough-scaled Bush Viper, and is probably just an aberrant example of that species.

Acuminate Bush Viper, Atheris acuminata.

Identification: A small green or tan bush viper from south-eastern DR Congo and adjacent areas. The head is short and quite deep, the eye large, the pupil vertical and the neck thin. There are many small scales on top of the head. The body is subtriangular in section and the tail is 13–16% of total length. The scales are strongly keeled; in 24–31 rows at midbody; ventrals 133–144 (higher counts in males); subcaudals 38–42 in females and 45–49 in males. The six known specimens ranged from 22–40cm. The colour is dull green or yellow-brown, with faint lighter cross-bars or lozenges on the back; the underside is light yellow or greenish. Juveniles have a whitish tail tip.

Natural History: Nothing known, but presumably similar to other bush vipers; that is, primarily nocturnal, mostly arboreal, gives birth to live young and feeds on small vertebrates.

Medical Significance: Nothing known.

Shaba Bush Viper, Atheris katangensis.

Identification: A very small brown or dull green bush viper from Mounts Mabu and Namuli in north-central Mozambique. The head is triangular, the eye large, the pupil vertical and the neck thin. There are many small scales on top of the head. The body is subtriangular in section and the tail is 14–17% of total length. The scales are strongly keeled; in 22–26 rows at midbody; ventrals 128–137; subcaudals 39–47. The five known specimens ranged from 18cm to 38cm. Some specimens have a black V-shape on the head. The dorsal colour is olive, blue-grey or brown, and along the centre of the back is a pair of light lines forming a twisted helix shape, interspersed with black blotches. In some specimens the dorsal scales have a distinctive yellow tip. The adults seem to retain the juvenile yellow tail tip. The underside is blue-grey with fine, heavy black stippling, except on the yellow tail tip.

Habitat and Distribution: All specimens were found on the forest floor in wet forest on Mounts Mabu and Namuli, Zambezia Province, north-central Mozambique, between 1,000m and 1,550m.

Medical Significance: Little known. Local hunters describe bites from these snakes as painful but not lethal.

Mount Mabu Bush Viper, Atheris mabuensis.

Habitat and Distribution: Known from just two forest fragments in the southern highlands of Tanzania, north of the northern tip of Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa).

Natural History: Poorly known. Individuals were found both climbing on bushes and trees and moving on the ground; it appears that larger individuals become more terrestrial and hide in rodent burrows. It presumably feeds largely on small vertebrates and gives birth to live young.

Medical Significance: Nothing is known of the toxicity or composition of the venom, but, as with other larger bush viper species, a bite from this species might be serious. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, keeping the bitten limb comfortable and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Matilda’s Bush Viper, Atheris matildae.

Habitat and Distribution: A characteristic species of the Albertine Rift. It lives in medium- to high-altitude moist savanna and woodland, montane forest and bamboo, sometimes associated with lakes and swamps, in waterside vegetation, between 1,000m and 2,800m. It occurs from North Kivu in DR Congo and extreme western Uganda, south along the Albertine Rift, to both sides of northern Lake Tanganyika, where it extends slightly further south on the DR Congo shore. On the eastern shore it is replaced by the Mount Rungwe Bush Viper (Atheris rungweensis).

Natural History: Arboreal, living in Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and reedy swamp vegetation, Elephant Grass (Pennisetum purpureum), bushes, small trees and bamboo. It will descend to the ground to hunt. It is probably nocturnal, but known to bask, at heights of 3m or more in creepers, Elephant Grass and Papyrus. If disturbed it slides quickly downwards or simply drops off its perch. In Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, it was found waiting in ambush for diurnal lizards such as Jackson’s Forest Lizard (Adolfus jacksoni), concealed in grass at the base of roadcut walls. Hatchlings used caudal luring, waving their bright tail tips to attract insect-eating prey. Some specimens are placid, but often it is bad-tempered, hissing, striking and forming C-shaped coils when threatened. It gives birth to live young in clutches of 4–15; a female from Mount Karisimbi gave birth to 12 young in February, and gravid females were collected in October and November in south-west Uganda, and in January in the Ruwenzoris. The diet includes small mammals, amphibians and lizards (including chameleons); captive specimens descended to the ground to stalk rodents.

Medical Significance: Few documented bites, but in countries like Rwanda and Burundi, with intensive agriculture, this species is likely to be present in marginal vegetation along rivers running through farmland. Bites by this species, including one in Rwanda, are characterised by extreme pain, swelling (in one case up the entire arm and onto the trunk; the victim also became unconscious), oedema, clotting abnormalities and necrosis, sometimes resulting in the loss of parts of digits. No antivenom is produced. Symptomatic treatment is recommended, with pain relief, keeping the bitten limb comfortable and monitoring for necrosis and clotting abnormalities.

Great Lakes Bush Viper, Atheris nitschei.

Identification: A large, attractive green and yellow bush viper of south-western Tanzania, extreme northern Zambia and Malawi. The large head is triangular in shape and rather flat in profile, with a distinct neck. The dorsals are keeled and pointed, but with keels ending before the tip; in 22–33 rows at midbody; ventrals 150–165; subcaudals 46–58. Maximum size about 65cm, average 35–55cm; hatchlings 15–17cm. The colour is predominantly light or dark green, usually with oblique yellow cross-bars, festoons or zigzags; in some specimens the upwards curve of the festoon has a black infilling. The underside is greenish yellow. Newborn animals are dark brown or grey, with a bright yellow tip to the tail. They may use this brightly coloured tail as a ‘lure’ to attract prey. After several moults, they develop a uniform green and then more patterned adult colouration.

Habitat and Distribution: Most records are from moist savanna, woodland and hill forest of south-western Tanzania, northern Zambia and Malawi, between 800m and 2,000m. It occurs southwards from the Gombe Stream National Park and Kigoma down the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika to the Mahale Peninsula, and inland to the Ugalla River. In addition, in forest patches in the high country around Sumbawanga, between the north end of Lake Rukwa and the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and on Mount Rungwe, just north of the north end of Lake Tanganyika; it is also found in the Nyika National Park and Plateau, on both sides of the Zambia–Malawi border, around Mbala in northern Zambia and in the Matipa Complex Forest in northern Malawi.

Natural History: Poorly known. It is arboreal, and the vertical pupil suggests it is nocturnal. An expert climber, found in bushes 1–3m above the ground, or on the ground at edges of forest. It might hunt on the ground or ambush from trees. It gives birth to live young. The diet includes small frogs, although captive animals accept mice.

Taxonomic Notes: Originally regarded as a subspecies of the Great Lakes Bush Viper (Atheris nitschei).

Mount Rungwe Bush Viper, Atheris rungweensis.

Identification: A large bush viper, usually green but sometimes other colours, often with fine yellow cross-bars. It has the widest range of any bush viper, occurring right across forested Central Africa. The head is broad, triangular and covered in small, strongly keeled scales. The small eye, with a vertical pupil, is set far forward. The tail is long and prehensile, 15–17% of total length in females and 17–20% in males. The scales are keeled; in 15–25 rows at midbody; ventrals 133–175; subcaudals 45–67 (higher counts in males). Maximum size about 80cm, average 40–65cm; hatchlings 16–22cm. The colour in much of its range is green or yellow-green (very occasionally brown), often becoming turquoise towards the tail. Sometimes the yellow-tipped scales form a series of fine yellow cross-bars. The belly is greenish blue, with yellow blotches. Juveniles are olive, green or yellow-green, with dark-edged, olive V-shapes on the back. Hatchlings are more strongly banded than adults, but have a bright yellow or pink tail tip, which may be used as a lure. However, in Central Africa, especially in DR Congo, several other colour morphs are known, including orange, bright and dull yellow, slate grey and blue-grey, and with or without cross-bars. The colour varies within broods; for example, a Kinshasa female gave birth to orange, yellow and green offspring.

Habitat and Distribution: All types of forest, and in well-wooded savanna, from sea level to 1,700m. In Nigeria it is found in a wide range of habitats, including suburbia, agriculture and mangroves. It seems to be separated by altitude from the Great Lakes Bush Viper (Atheris nitschei) in the country around the Albertine Rift, the Green Bush Viper usually occurring below 1,600m and the Great Lakes Bush Viper above that. Sporadically distributed from Kenya (Kakamega Forest), Tanzania (Rumanyika National Park) and central Uganda (Mount Elgon, Lake Victoria forests, and low-altitude localities along the Albertine Rift), westwards across DR Congo, Republic of the Congo and southern Central African Republic to south-eastern Nigeria, and south to northern Angola. There is an isolated record from Watoka in South Sudan. Doubt has been cast on the historical records of this snake from Ghana, Togo and Ivory Coast; there are no unequivocal recent records, so these are not shown on the map.

Medical Significance: At present this is the only species of bush viper known to have caused human fatalities, its wide range bringing it into contact with forest villagers. Chippaux and Jackson, in Snakes of Central and Western Africa, report ‘many deaths’, although without further data. The venom appears to be cytotoxic. Two documented fatal bite cases, from Central African Republic and Kenya, showed massive swelling and incoagulable blood; death occurred after six days in both cases. A Nigerian victim lapsed into a coma, but recovered. The species is said to have caused ‘a number’ of fatalities in West Africa. Local pain, often intense, swelling and coagulopathy seem to characterise most cases of bite from this viper. Specific antivenom is not available, although carpet viper antivenom has in some cases been shown to assist, so bites may need symptomatic treatment, including elevation, monitoring of clotting times, transfusions and replacement therapy.

Green Bush Viper, Atheris squamigera.

Identification: A small, slim green bush viper from the forests of western Cameroon. The head is short, the eye large, the pupil vertical and the neck thin. Usually there are no subocular scales, though occasionally there may be a single row or a few tiny irregular ones. There are many small scales on top of the head, some of which curve noticeably upwards, like those of the Rough-scaled Bush Viper (Atheris hispida). The body is subtriangular in section and the tail is 19–22% of total length. The scales are strongly keeled; in 14–16 rows at midbody; ventrals 152–163; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 58–65. Maximum size about 55cm, average around 30–45cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is dull green or yellow-brown, with faint, pale yellow cross-bars, interspersed with small dark blotches, and the underside is dull lime green, sparsely smudged with black. The head is marked with black blotches, forming an incomplete chevron. Juveniles have a yellowish tail tip; hatchlings are dark brown or black.

Habitat and Distribution: Known only from the forests of western Cameroon, in the South-West Region, between 200m and 400m.

Natural History: Nothing known, but presumably similar to other bush vipers; that is, primarily nocturnal, mostly arboreal (although the specimens used in the redescription were found crossing a road), and gives birth to live young. It presumably feeds on small vertebrates.

Medical Significance: Nothing known.

Cameroon Bush Viper, Atheris subocularis.

A genus containing a single species that lives at high altitude in central Kenya. Of all Africa’s dangerous snakes, it is probably the least significant medically, as it is very small, and its entire range lies on montane moorlands within two high-altitude national parks where virtually no one lives and nobody walks without shoes. No antivenom is available.

Identification: A small, slender viper from the moorlands of the Aberdare Mountains and Mount Kenya. It has an elongate head, covered in small, strongly keeled scales. The small eye, with a brown iris and vertical pupil, is set far forward. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, 10–13% of total length. The scales are keeled; in 24–28 rows at midbody; ventrals 127–144; subcaudals paired, 25–36. Maximum size about 35cm, average 20–30cm; hatchlings 10–14cm. The dull grey or brown body has a paired series of triangular, pale-edged black blotches along the back. The underside is yellow, cream or grey-white, but heavily mottled black, to the extent of appearing black in places. There is an irregular, dark brown arrow- or V-shaped mark on the crown of the head. A wide, dark stripe passes through the eye to the temporal region. The upper and lower labials are white.

Habitat and Distribution: This unique, beautiful tiny Kenyan endemic is found only at high altitude (2,700–3,800m) in treeless montane moorland. There is an isolated population on the Aberdare Mountains and another on Mount Kenya. It has probably the smallest range of any dangerous African snake.

Natural History: Terrestrial. Just before the breeding season, it can be seen basking at the mouths of rodent burrows. As is suggested by its vertical pupil, this snake is most active in the early evening, when its prey, mostly amphibians but also small rodents, is also active. During the cold season (April–July), when night temperatures drop to 6°C, it may bask in front of its retreat during daylight hours. When threatened, it throws its body into C-shaped coils, like egg-eaters (Dasypeltis) and carpet vipers (Echis), and can strike rapidly. Mating occurs in July, and 3–16 young are born November–December.

Medical Significance: Apparently a rare snake, with a restricted range, so not a significant cause of snakebite. No fatalities are known. No antivenom is available. However, case histories of bites inflicted on snake keepers indicate that this is a very dangerous snake; the venom has some severe effects, the victims suffering intense pain and swelling, necrosis, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenia and acute kidney injury. Recovery was relatively slow.

Floodplain Viper, Proatheris superciliaris.

A genus of stout-bodied, broad-headed, nocturnal African vipers, all beautifully marked and fairly easily identified in the field. Eighteen species are known; six are heavy-bodied and large, reaching a metre or more, while 12 are small, rarely larger than 60cm. Most of the small forms have restricted ranges in inhospitable areas; they are not very significant medically, and no definite fatalities are recorded. Of the large species, two have small ranges, both in the Ethiopian highlands, and little is known of their venom. However, the other four (Rhinoceros Viper, Bitis nasicornis; Puff Adder, B. arietans; and Eastern and Western Gaboon Vipers, B. gabonica and B. rhinoceros) have large ranges and are among Africa’s most dangerous snakes. They are slow-moving, active on the ground at night, well camouflaged and easily trodden on, and they deliver a large dose of a powerful cytotoxic venom when they strike. A bite from one is a medical emergency, and must be treated in a well-equipped hospital. Antivenom is available. Symptoms include intense local pain, swelling, blistering, compartment syndrome, shock, blood coagulation abnormalities and necrosis. The Puff Adder is arguably Africa’s most dangerous snake. It has a huge range in the savanna where people live, it is large, common and irascible, and it bites a lot of rural people and their animals.

All members of the genus give birth to live young. They all move slowly but strike quickly, from ambush, the stout body lending stability to the strike. These vipers have a curious small pocket behind the nostril, the supranasal sac. This sac is similar to the pit organ of the rattlesnake and other pit vipers. It may be able to detect radiant heat, and thus serve to help the snake target warm prey in the dark; recent experiments have shown that blinded Puff Adders can still detect and strike at warm-blooded prey.

Identification: Africa’s largest viper. It occurs throughout the savanna and is a fat snake, with a broad, flat triangular head, a pale line between the eyes, and V-shapes on the back. The head is covered in small, overlapping, strongly keeled scales. The small eye, with a vertical pupil, is set far forward, and the nostrils are upturned. The neck is thin, the body fat and depressed, and the tail fairly short, 10–15% of total length in males and 6–9% in females. The dorsal scales are keeled; in 27–41 rows at midbody; ventrals 123–147; subcaudals 14–39 (usually more than 25 in males). Maximum size depends on locality; in most of Africa rarely larger than 1.2m, average 0.6–1m. Much larger examples, up to 1.8m or possibly more, occur in the dry savanna of northern Uganda, northern and eastern Kenya, Somalia and eastern Ethiopia. Hatchlings 15–23cm. The colour is variable; it may be grey, brown, rufous or yellow, usually with a series of V-shapes down the back that may morph into cross-bars. The underside is yellow or white, interspersed with short black dashes. There is usually a light line between the eyes. In highland areas, males are often brighter than females. Unusual colour morphs (snakes with vertebral stripes, no head markings, or cross-bars instead of stripes) occasionally occur.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but may climb low bushes or trees. It is usually nocturnal, though is sometimes active by day in the rainy season. In high-altitude areas it may bask. It hides in thick grass, under ground cover, down holes, in leaf drifts, under bushes, etc. It is often poorly concealed under small bushes or in grass tufts, but well camouflaged and thus liable to be trodden on. It hunts by ambush, waiting for prey, which is ambushed with a rapid strike. It crawls in a straight line if unhurried (‘caterpillar crawl’), leaving a single broad track; if stressed it can move in the usual serpentine, side-to-side movement. When threatened, it inflates the body – hence the common name – hisses loudly, and raises and draws back the front third of the body. If a target is within range, a rapid strike follows. The withdrawal is equally rapid and the snake may overbalance, hence the incorrect and highly dangerous belief that Puff Adders only strike backwards and it is safe to stand in front of one. Captive individuals often remain bad-tempered and noisy. Males indulge in combat, neck-wrestling each other. Females produce a pheromone that attracts males. They give birth to live young. The clutch size depends on female size and altitude; usually 10–35 are born, but a Kenyan female had 156 young, a record for any vertebrate. The diet is varied and includes mammals (from rats up to small antelope), birds, amphibians and reptiles, including snakes and tortoises. Large prey animals are struck, released and followed; small prey may be simply seized and swallowed. This snake’s enemies include monitor lizards, large cobras, predatory birds and small carnivorous mammals.

Puff Adder, Bitis arietans.

Identification: Unmistakable if seen clearly; a large, stout viper, with a narrow, flat triangular head covered in small, strongly keeled scales. On the end of the nose is a cluster of two to three pairs of hornlike scales. The small eye is set well forward, the pupil is vertical, and the iris is green or gold with black flecks. The neck is thin, the body triangular in section and the tail short, 13–18% of total length in males and 7–10% in females. The body scales are rough and heavily keeled, the keels so hard and prominent that they have been known to inflict cuts on snake handlers when the snake struggles. The scales are in 30–43 rows at midbody; ventrals 117–140; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals paired, 12–32 (higher counts in males). Maximum size about 1.4m, average 0.8–1.1m; hatchlings 18–25cm. The colour pattern is complex. Down the back runs a series of 15–18 large oblong blue or blue-green markings, each with a yellow line down the centre. Irregular black rhombic blotches enclose these markings. On the flanks are a series of dark crimson triangles, sometimes narrowly bordered with blue or green. Many lateral scales are white-tipped. The top of the head is blue or green, with a vivid black arrow mark. The belly is dirty white to dull green, extensively marbled and blotched in black and grey. Specimens from the centre and west of the range tend to be more blue, and those from the east more greenish. The tongue is black with a purple base.

Medical Significance: As this species is a forest snake that often climbs and spends much time motionless, bites are rare; it tends to stay out of humanity’s way. But it is a dangerous snake, present through the Central African forest, with cytotoxic venom causing extensive local swelling, necrosis and coagulopathy; the lethal dose is reportedly lower than that for both the Gaboon vipers and the Puff Adder. Bite victims need to be rapidly transported to a major hospital and treated; antivenom therapy may be necessary and clotting times need to be monitored. Many of the reported cases have involved swelling and coagulopathy, but the victims recovered. However, an American hobbyist bitten by a Rhinoceros Viper died within a few hours, as a consequence of anoxic brain damage.

Rhinoceros Viper, Bitis nasicornis.

Identification: Unmistakable; a fat viper of the Central and southern African forests, with a broad, flat white triangular head and a remarkable geometric pattern on its body. Between the raised nostrils is a pair of tiny horns. The small eyes, with a vertical pupil and a cream, yellow-white or orange iris, are set far forward. The tongue is black with a red tip. The body is very stout and depressed, and the tail short, 9–12% of total length in males and 5–8% in females. The scales are heavily keeled; in 35–46 rows at midbody; ventrals 124–140; subcaudals 17–33 (higher counts in males). Maximum size about 1.75m, possibly larger. Average 0.9–1.5m (the mean size of a large Nigerian collection was 1.3m), females usually larger than males; hatchlings 25–37cm. The head is white or cream with a fine, dark central line and black spots on the rear corners, and a dark blue-black triangle behind and below each eye. Along the centre of the back is a series of pale, subrectangular blotches, interspaced with dark, yellow-edged hourglass markings. On the flanks is a series of fawn or brown rhomboidal shapes, with light vertical central bars. The belly is pale, with irregular black or brown blotches. Specimens from the south-eastern area of its continuous range (Zambia, south-east DR Congo) often have a pinkish or orange cast.

Medical Significance: This is a very dangerous snake, being slow-moving and well concealed, and liable to be trodden on by those walking though vegetation. Anyone moving material on the ground is also at risk, although it is a placid snake, and often reluctant to strike. It has a deadly cytotoxic and haemorrhagic venom, although bites are rare due to its placid nature. Symptoms include spontaneous systemic bleeding, swelling, bruising, blistering, necrosis, and haemostatic and cardiovascular abnormalities (hypotension, shock, arrhythmias, ECG changes). Bites must be treated in hospital with antivenom and clinical support.

Taxonomic Notes: This snake and the Western Gaboon Viper (Bitis rhinoceros) were originally regarded as subspecies (B. gabonica gabonica and B. g. rhinoceros). However, they are reproductively isolated.

Eastern Gaboon Viper, Bitis gabonica.

Identification: A fat viper of the West African forests, from Guinea to Togo, with a broad, flat white triangular head and a remarkable geometric pattern on its body. Between the raised nostrils is a pair of horns. The small eyes, with a vertical pupil and a cream, yellow-white or silvery iris, are set far forward. The tongue is black with a red tip. The body is very stout and depressed, and the tail short, 9–12% of total length in males and 5–8% in females. The scales are heavily keeled; in 28–46 rows at midbody; ventrals 128–147; subcaudals 17–33 (higher counts in males). Maximum size about 1.7m, possibly larger. Average 0.8–1.3m, females usually larger than males; hatchlings 25–37cm. The head is white or cream with a fine, dark central line and black spots on the rear corners, and a single dark triangle behind each eye; this is the only way this species differs externally from the Eastern Gaboon Viper (Bitis gabonica). Along the centre of the back is a series of pale, subrectangular blotches, interspaced with dark, yellow-edged hourglass markings. On the flanks is a series of fawn or brown rhomboidal shapes, with light vertical central bars. The belly is pale, with irregular black or brown blotches.

Habitat and Distribution: Coastal forest and thicket, woodland, forest–savanna mosaic, well-wooded savanna and forest. It occurs eastwards from western Guinea and Sierra Leone to Ghana; also in forests in south and central Togo. Further east it is replaced by the Eastern Gaboon Viper. A specimen was found on Legon Campus, just east of Accra, Ghana.

Medical Significance: This is a very dangerous snake, with a deadly cytotoxic and haemorrhagic venom, although bites are rare due to its placid nature. Risk factors are as for the previous species. Symptoms include spontaneous systemic bleeding, swelling, bruising, blistering, necrosis, and haemostatic and cardiovascular abnormalities (hypotension, shock, arrhythmias, ECG changes). Bites must be treated in hospital with antivenom and clinical support.

Western Gaboon Viper, Bitis rhinoceros.

Identification: A fat viper endemic to the forests of southern Ethiopia. The small eyes, with a vertical pupil and a yellow iris, are set fairly far forward. The tongue is deep blue and black. The body is very stout and depressed, and the tail short. The scales are heavily keeled; in 37–39 rows at midbody; ventrals 141–146; subcaudals 20–21. Maximum size about 1.3m, possibly larger. Average 0.7–1m; hatchlings 17–24cm. The head is broad and yellow, with a dark triangle between the eyes and a vague hammer shape behind this. The ground colour is yellowish or greeny-grey, often darkening posteriorly. Along the centre of the back is a series of black hexagons, interspersed with yellow butterfly shapes, with white-spotted black subtriangular shapes below. On the flanks is a series of upward-pointing, pale-edged dark triangles. The underside is greenish or yellow, with irregular black or brown blotches.

Medical Significance: Although the danger to humans posed by this snake is slight, due to its geographically very restricted range in medium- to high-altitude forest, it is a large viper, closely related to other large African vipers, and its venom is likely to be highly toxic. The people living in the Metu area, where the type specimen was collected, state that there are several fatalities every year from bites from this snake. The lethal dose is only slightly greater than that for Puff Adder (Bitis arietans) venom, and the venom has a haemorrhagic effect. Although no specific antivenom is produced for this snake, the polyvalent antivenom produced by South African Vaccine Producers (SAVP) is reported as effective against its venom. Bites are fairly unlikely, but treatment as for a Puff Adder bite should be effective; a bite by a captive specimen in the USA caused only local envenoming.

Ethiopian Mountain Viper, Bitis parviocula.

Identification: A fat black and yellow viper known (so far) only from a small area of south-central Ethiopia, east of the Gregory Rift Valley. Described in 2016; only a small handful of specimens are deposited in museums. The small eyes, with a vertical pupil and a dark iris, are set fairly far forward. The body is stout and depressed, and the tail short. The scales are heavily keeled; in 38–39 rows at midbody; ventrals 145; subcaudals 20. One museum specimen is 66cm long, but uncollected specimens of about 1m have been observed; hatchlings are probably around 15–20cm. The head is black or blue-black, edged with a yellow arrowhead shape, and there is a yellow line across the head behind the eyes. The body is black, with a fine reticulate network of yellow or cream lines; the underside is cream or yellow, marked with dark subrectangular blotches.

Habitat and Distribution: Several living specimens have been observed at the edges of coniferous and broadleaved forest, so presumably it favours clearings in forest. The type specimen is labelled from Dodolla, a town in the high grasslands in the northern foothills of the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia, at 2,400m, but it may have been transported there. The living animals have all been observed in the Bale Mountains National Park, along the road that descends from the Sanetti Plateau southwards towards Dolo Mena. All were within the forest between 2,100m and 2,400m. It probably occurs throughout the forest that extends 10–30km on either side of this road, and may extend further into the forest patches to the west. Local people at Dodolla and also in the town of Wondo Genet (more than 100km to the west, on a forested hill at 2,400m) claimed to recognise this snake from photographs.

Medical Significance: This snake is widespread, well able to conceal itself, and active on the ground at night, so it poses some threat to humans, particularly in the stock farming areas of dry southern Africa. Many people in south-western Botswana had either been bitten or knew somebody who had been bitten by this snake, often while going outside to the toilet in the night during the summer months. It has a cytotoxic venom. However, few bites have been formally documented and no human fatalities are known. Bite symptoms include local swelling with intense pain, vomiting and lymphangitis. Local necrosis, almost certainly caused by bad clinical management, has been recorded. No antivenom is produced, and no known antivenom gives protection against the venom of this species. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Horned Adder, Bitis caudalis.

Identification: A very small, stocky adder of the dry coastal strip of western South Africa and southern Namibia. The head is short, flat and triangular, sometimes with a raised scale above the eye like a blunt horn. The body is stout and slightly depressed, and the tail short, 7–10% of total length in females and 10–12.5% in males. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 21–27 rows at midbody; ventrals 104–129; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 17–27 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 28cm, average 18–25cm; hatchlings 11–13cm. The colour often matches the sand of its habitat, being greyer in the south and more reddish in the north. The pattern consists of three rows of darker, light-centred spots, but these may be faded so the snake just looks mottled light grey. The underside is grey to dirty cream, speckled and spotted to varying extent. In some specimens the tail tip is black.

Habitat and Distribution: Occurs in semi-stable vegetated sandy regions of the southern and transitional Namib Desert, where it is a close ecological equivalent of Péringuey’s Adder (Bitis peringueyi), but lives in more stable, vegetated sand dunes, between sea level and 500m. It is found in coastal regions from Papendorp and the mouth of the Olifants River in the Western Cape, South Africa, north to Luderitz in southern Namibia. It may extend up to 60km inland in the Sperrgebiet (diamond concession) of southern Namibia.

Medical Significance: Fairly low, being a very small, secretive snake living in a sparsely inhabited sandy area, although bites have been suffered by barefoot beachgoers. No fatalities are known. The venom appears to be cytotoxic. No specific antivenom is produced, and no known antivenom gives protection against the venom of this species. Symptoms of documented bites vary considerably, from intense pain to no pain at all, from no swelling to swelling of the entire bitten area, and both local sensitivity and local numbness. In one case involving swelling there was also discolouration and oozing of fluid from the punctures and, after 24 hours, a 5mm haematoma developed at the bite site. Recovery was complete. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Namaqua Dwarf Adder, Bitis schneideri.

Habitat and Distribution: Lives in sparsely vegetated, loose, wind-blown dunes of the Namib Desert, and thus doesn’t extend inland much beyond 150km or so; found from sea level to around 1,000m. It occurs from the vicinity of Luderitz in southern Namibia north to the border with Angola, and might occur where the Namib Desert extends into south-west Angola in the Parque Nacional do Iona, although there are no definite Angolan records.

Natural History: A terrestrial snake, fairly slow-moving when crawling (although it can strike quickly), but it sidewinds exceptionally well, moving rapidly across sand and leaving a series of parallel tracks; it has been seen to climb 45° slopes by sidewinding. Unusually, it is active at any time of the day or night, depending upon the weather, temperature and season. It largely hunts from ambush, shuffling down into the sand until concealed, with only the eyes, top of the head and tail tip exposed; in this position it is hidden from prey and isolated from surface heat. It gives birth between February and April to 2–10 young. It feeds largely on lizards, in particular the Shovel-snouted Lizard (Meroles anchietae) and barking geckoes, sometimes waving the tail as a lure to attract prey. In a region of low, infrequent rainfall, the snake obtains most of its water from the food it eats. However, coastal fogs frequently extend 60km into the Namib and provide additional moisture. The snake flattens its body to increase the surface area, and sips droplets of condensing fog from its scales.

Péringuey’s Adder, Bitis peringueyi.

Identification: A small, variable, attractive adder of the rocky hinterland, hills and mountains of the southern and eastern side of South Africa, eastern Zimbabwe and far western montane Mozambique. The head is triangular but elongate, the body stout and slightly depressed, and the tail short, 7–10% of total length in females and 10–12% in males. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 27–33 rows at midbody; ventrals 118–144; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 15–31 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 60cm, average 35–50cm; hatchlings 10–15cm. The colour and pattern vary regionally. The ground colour is usually grey, brown or rufous. In several forms there is a dorsolateral series of triangular black markings down either side. These are edged below by a white or yellowish line, below which is another series of smaller dark spots. Between these spots are dark, Y-shaped blotches. The head bears a dark arrow-shaped mark on the crown, and two pale streaks on either side. The chin and throat are usually flesh pink or yellowish, while the ventrum is off-white with dusky infusions, or occasionally slate grey to black. The latter is particularly evident from high-altitude populations, where snowfalls are common (e.g. Swartberg in the Western Cape, and the Drakensberg in Kwazulu-Natal). Some specimens, particularly in the Mpumalanga Drakensberg, are a drab brown, while some Zimbabwe animals have vivid rufous markings.

Habitat and Distribution: Occupies a variety of habitats, but prefers cool climates with high rainfall. It is thus restricted to higher elevations in the northern parts of its range, but may occur on small rock outcrops at sea level in the Western Cape; so it ranges from sea level to over 3,000m. In the Western Cape it lives in coastal and mountain fynbos (heathland), where it experiences a Mediterranean climate (cold, wet winters and warm, dry summers). Further north it is found in montane and coarse grassland with cold but dry winters and warm, rainy summers. Its distribution is startlingly disjunct. In Zimbabwe it is found in both the Nyanga and Chimanimani Mountains, being more common in the latter, and also extends onto the Mozambique side of the mountains. It reappears close to 600km further south, as separate populations in the Mpumalanga and Limpopo Escarpment, and the Maloti-Drakensberg of Lesotho and parts of Kwazulu-Natal, Free State and Eastern Cape adjoining the Lesotho border. Further south this snake occurs in the Cape Fold Mountains of the Eastern Cape and Western Cape.

Medical Significance: This snake is quite common in parts of its range, so it presents a threat to those whose work or pleasure takes them into the hills. The venom is unusual among vipers in containing a major neurotoxin, which is not neutralised by antivenom prepared against other snakes, including elapids. Its toxicity is similar to that of Horned Adder (Bitis caudalis) venom, and it is produced in similar amounts. No specific antivenom is available. Many bites are followed by a progressive ophthalmoplegia, including ocular paralysis, ptosis (drooping eyelids) and fixed dilated pupils. Associated neurotoxic symptoms of nausea, vomiting, vertigo, difficulty in breathing and the loss of taste and smell may be experienced. Respiratory paralysis has been recorded. Local symptoms include severe pain and rapidly spreading swelling. In some cases these alone occur. Tissue necrosis is rare, and the few examples have been localised to the bite site and may have been exacerbated by poor first aid. Neurological effects are usually transient, but may take several weeks to resolve; one victim spent several days on a ventilator, while another two had dilated pupils for over a year following the bite. No deaths are reliably recorded, but bites are serious and should be treated in hospital. In a study of 14 bite cases in South Africa, all 14 patients developed local cytotoxic effects and 13 of them developed systemic effects to some degree. These included prominent vomiting, disturbances in cranial nerve function that included loss of accommodation, a global decrease in motor power needing mechanical ventilation for respiratory failure, and hyponatraemia, sometimes with associated convulsions. This is an underrated dangerous snake.

Berg Adder, Bitis atropos.

Identification: A small, spiky-horned adder of the western coast of South Africa and extreme southern Namibia (populations further east have now been moved into other taxa). The head is short, flat and triangular, and characterised by spiky tufts of 2–7 elongate horns over the eyes. The body is stout and slightly depressed, and the tail short, 7–9% of total length in females and 10–12.5% in males. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 23–29 rows at midbody; ventrals 120–152; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 18–37 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 55cm (although a captive female reached 75cm), average 30–50cm; hatchlings 13–16cm. The ground colour is grey, brown or rufous, with a double series of darker subquadrangular blotches down the centre of the back and a single series of similar blotches on each flank. There is sometimes a poorly defined grey dorsolateral stripe. There is a vague dark arrow-shape on the head, and often two lighter bars on the side of the head, behind and in front of the eye.

Habitat and Distribution: Lives in rocky desert, hills, rocky outcrops and gravel flatlands of the coastal plain, in the Namib Desert, into semi-desert (Karoo), and extending south into montane fynbos heathland. It occurs from Meob Bay and Mount Uri-Hauchab in Namibia south to Lambert’s Bay, South Africa, and inland to the Cederberg, western South Africa, from sea level to 800m.

Medical Significance: Fairly low, being a very small, secretive snake living in a relatively small and sparsely populated area. The venom is probably cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced, and no known antivenom gives protection against the venom of this species. No documented bite cases are known, but anecdotal evidence from pet keepers indicates that bites are characterised by pain and local swelling. Bites should be treated conservatively by painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Taxonomic Notes: The following four species, all associated with the Cape Fold Mountains in southern South Africa, have at some time in the past each been regarded as subspecies or synonyms of this snake; a 1999 reassessment indicated that they are all evolving separately and are thus good evolutionary species, and are largely allopatric (living in separate habitats), although odd problematic intermediate specimens are known.

Many-horned Adder, Bitis cornuta.

Identification: A small, very rare adder with raised ‘eyebrows’ and sometimes with horns, and a minute range near Port Elizabeth in South Africa. The head is short, flat and triangular, and characterised by raised supraocular scales or short, spiky tufts of elongate horns over the eyes. The body is stout and slightly depressed, and the tail short, 8–9% of total length in females and 9.5–12% in males. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 27–29 rows at midbody; ventrals 120–138; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 21–27 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 30cm, average 20–26cm; hatchling size unknown. The ground colour is grey, with a double series of darker subquadrangular blotches down the centre of the back, a series of lighter flank blotches and sometimes a poorly defined grey dorsolateral stripe. There is a dark arrow shape on the head. The underside is cream-grey with darker blotching.

Natural History: A rare, fairly slow-moving terrestrial snake. Little is known of its habits. One specimen was found crossing a road in the daytime; others were concealed in thickets. It is presumably similar to other species previously believed to be Bitis cornuta (i.e. hunts from ambush and gives birth to live young). Lizard scales and rodent fur were found in the gut of two museum specimens.

Medical Significance: Insignificant, being a small snake with a tiny range. The venom is probably cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced; no documented bite cases are known. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Albany Adder, Bitis albanica.

Identification: A small adder with small horns above the eye, and with a small range around Cape Town, South Africa. The head is short, flat and triangular, and characterised by short, spiky horns over the eyes. The body is stout and slightly depressed, and the tail is short, 8–9% of total length in females and 9.5–11% in males. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 25–29 rows at midbody (usually 27); ventrals 115–128; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 19–31 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 42cm, average 25–35cm; hatchlings 12–15cm. The ground colour is grey or brown, with a double series of darker, often rufous subquadrangular blotches down the centre of the back, a series of similarly coloured but narrower flank blotches, and sometimes a poorly defined grey dorsolateral stripe or series of lozenges. There is a dark, sometimes arrow-shaped mark on the head. The underside is grey-white with darker edging.

Natural History: A rare, fairly slow-moving terrestrial snake. Little is known of its habits. It is said to be crepuscular, and shelters under limestone rock slabs and within thickets. Females give birth to live young; up to seven are born in the late summer. It eats lizards and small rodents.

Medical Significance: Insignificant, being a small snake with a tiny range. The venom is probably cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced; no documented bite cases are known. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Southern Adder, Bitis armata,

Identification: A small, often rufous adder with horns or raised ‘brows’ above the eye, and with a small range in the Western Cape and environs, South Africa. The head is short, flat and triangular, sometimes with very short, spiky horns over the eyes. The body is stout and slightly depressed, and the tail short, 8–9% of total length in females and 9.5–11% in males. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 25–29 rows at midbody (usually 29); ventrals 126–143; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 22–35 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 48cm, average 25–40cm; hatchlings 12–16cm. The ground colour is rufous, grey or reddish brown, with a double series of darker brown subquadrangular blotches down the centre of the back. The flanks are mottled with irregular darker blotches. Some animals (especially rufous specimens) often have very subdued or near-invisible dorsal markings. There is a darker arrow-shaped mark on the head in some individuals. The underside is cream to grey with darker grey-white infusions.

Natural History: A very rare, fairly slow-moving terrestrial snake. Little is known of its habits. It is said to be crepuscular, or possibly nocturnal in the summer. It shelters under rocks and in the lee of bushes. Females give birth to live young; up to 11 are born in the late summer. It eats lizards and small rodents.

Medical Significance: Insignificant, being a small snake with a tiny range. The venom is probably cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced; no documented bite cases are known. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Red Adder, Bitis rubida.

Identification: A small, dull brown adder with very subdued markings, and with a tiny range in the Sneeuberg Range and vicinity, South Africa. The head is short, flat and triangular, sometimes with very small horns over the eyes. The body is stout and slightly depressed, and the tail short, 9–10% of total length. The head and body scales are strongly keeled; in 27–30 rows at midbody; ventrals 126–138; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 21–33 (higher counts usually males). Maximum length around 33cm, average 25–30cm; hatchlings 12–15cm. The ground colour is dull brown to yellow or rufous-brown, without markings or with 19–24 very subdued or near-invisible dorsal blotches. The underside is cream to light brown, speckled to a greater or lesser extent.

Habitat and Distribution: High-altitude grassland, between 1,600m and 1,800m. It is endemic to the Eastern Cape, in the Sneeuberg Range and adjacent mountains, from north of Graaff-Reinet eastwards to the Mountain Zebra National Park, near Cradock.

Medical Significance: Insignificant, being a small snake with a tiny range. The venom is probably cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced; no documented bite cases are known. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Plain Mountain Adder, Bitis inornata.

Identification: A small, slender adder with geometric markings, found in the dry hills of the Orange River basin along the southern Namibian–South African border. The head is pear-shaped, the body relatively slim (for an adder) and the tail short, 8–10% of total length. The dorsal scales are moderately keeled; in 25–27 rows at midbody; ventrals 147–155; subcaudals 22–33. Whether sexual dimorphism occurs is uncertain as very few females have been collected. Maximum length 61cm, average 35–55cm; captive hatchlings reported to be 10–12cm. The body is ash to dark grey, occasionally light tan, with a series of 16–34 transverse, often very square-edged, dark bars, flanked on either side by whitish spots. A pale triangular mark completes the bar adjacent to the ventrals. The top of the head is vaguely speckled. The chin and throat are white, and the underside light grey to dusky, with darker speckling.

Natural History: A rare terrestrial snake, and fairly slow-moving, but strikes quickly. Little is known of its habits. It is likely to be nocturnal or crepuscular. It presumably shelters under rocks, although captive specimens often lie out on their cage rocks. It gives birth to 4–5 live young in the late summer (captive animals have produced broods of up to nine). Lizards and small rodents are taken readily in captivity and probably form the main part of the diet in the wild. Water is readily taken from foliage or pools.

Medical Significance: Insignificant, being a small snake with a tiny range. The venom is probably cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced; no documented bite cases are known. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Desert Mountain Adder, Bitis xeropaga.

Habitat and Distribution: Lives on the high plateau of south-central Angola, at altitudes over 1,000m, reportedly from rocky montane and grassland areas. It is known from only a handful of localities in Huila, Bíe and Huambo Provinces; records from the north-west are now considered doubtful.

Natural History: A rare terrestrial snake, known from just a handful of specimens. Little is known of its habits. It is likely to be nocturnal or crepuscular, and its habits are presumably like those of other small vipers (i.e. it shelters under ground cover, gives birth to live young, hunts from ambush and eats small vertebrates).

Medical Significance: Insignificant, being a small snake with a tiny range. The venom is probably cytotoxic. A 45-year-old male who was bitten on the ankle while walking in the early morning experienced localised pain, which extended across the leg, as well as considerable swelling of the afflicted area and fever; he was unable to walk for four days. Symptoms were intense for a week but resolved after a month without complications. No necrosis was observed. No antivenom is produced. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; consider antibiotics if infection is present.

Angolan Adder, Bitis heraldica.

Habitat and Distribution: A Kenyan endemic, found in the high grassland and scrub of the Gregory Rift Valley in Kenya. It favours broken rocky country and scrub-covered hill slopes along the edge of the escarpment, right up to the forest edge, but has also been found on the valley floor, and at the edges of acacia woodland. It is restricted to high altitudes (usually over 1,500m, but up to 2,400m) along the high central Gregory Rift Valley. The southernmost record is from the northwest Kedong Valley, from where it extends north along the floor and eastern wall of the rift valley through Naivasha and Elmenteita to Njoro. It then extends up the western wall and out of the rift to Kipkabus and Eldoret (most northerly record). It occurs on the Kinangop Plateau, around Kijabe, on the hills west of Lake Naivasha, and probably on the eastern Mau Escarpment. It might be more widespread, such as westwards towards Narok.

Natural History: Poorly known. It is terrestrial and slow-moving, but can strike quickly. It is mostly nocturnal, prowling after dusk, but will strike from ambush at any time. This snake is often found sheltering in leaf litter among the stems of the Leleshwa shrub (Tarchonanthus camphoratus), which grows mainly along the lower rocky slopes of the escarpment edge, but it may also hide under rocks and logs, etc. Some specimens are bad-tempered when disturbed, constantly hissing and puffing, and struggling wildly when restrained, but others seem more placid; the Maasai people who know the snake say it is reluctant to strike. Captive specimens feed readily on rodents and lizards, which are struck from ambush or stalked. It gives birth to 7–12 live young in March or April, at the start of the rainy season.

Medical Significance: Low, being a very small, secretive snake living largely in ranching areas, although local herdsmen often know of people who had been bitten, and describe the bite as very painful and causing swelling, which fits with it being cytotoxic. No antivenom is produced, and no known antivenom gives protection against the venom of this species. Symptoms of a documented bite case included pain and swelling; a dog bitten in Kenya had a very swollen face. Bites should be treated conservatively by elevation and painkillers; antibiotics should be given if there are signs of infection.

Kenya Horned Viper, Bitis worthingtoni.

These small but highly dangerous snakes are found across huge areas of the Old World, from northern Sri Lanka through India, Pakistan and the Middle East, across northern Africa from Egypt to Mauritania, and south to parts of the West African coast and to the Tana River in Kenya. They are arguably the most medically significant snakes in the world, on account of their huge range, their relative abundance in some areas, their willingness to bite and their dangerous venom (for such a small species). They are active on the ground at night and easily trodden on, and they hide in holes and under ground cover in agricultural land. They are implicated in hundreds of thousands of snakebite cases; farmers and rural people are particularly at risk. In the words of Professor David Warrell, African snakebite expert and a man precise with his words, ‘this genus of vipers is of enormous medical importance’.

They are all small snakes (none larger than 80cm or so; most specimens are between 25cm and 50cm) with pear-shaped heads covered with small scales, small eyes with vertical pupils set well forward, thin necks and fairly stout, cylindrical bodies. Most of the body scales are keeled. Most carpet vipers are grey, brown or rufous, with various patterns, often including triangles or eyespots on the flanks. All have a distinctive threat display, forming C-shaped coils with the body; they then rub their scales together, the interscale friction creating a hissing sound, like water falling on a hot plate. The purpose of this stridulation is to enable the snake to make a loud warning noise without hissing with the mouth, and thus reduce water loss in a dry area. They are confident in defence, very quick to bite and will move towards a perceived threat while striking vigorously. The African species all lay eggs, but elsewhere some species give birth to live young.

Carpet vipers feed on a variety of prey, which may be the secret of their success; their venom (both within species and from one species to another) varies according to the prey they favour and the locality. This is medically significant; in parts of their range carpet vipers have venoms that are rarely fatal (mostly on the eastern side of Africa), while in other areas they are killers. In general, their venoms cause both local and systemic envenoming. There is pain and severe local swelling, blistering and necrosis, with severe haemostatic disorders leading to spontaneous systemic bleeding, from the membranes in the mouth and the internal organs. As David Warrell says, for carpet vipers ‘coagulopathy is universal’. When death occurs it is often three to five days after the bite. Treatment for all carpet viper bites must be carried out in a well-equipped hospital, and will almost certainly involve antivenom (which is available), replacement therapy and treatment for incoagulable blood. Start with what is probably the single most effective, and one of the simplest, clinical procedures known: the 20-minute whole blood clotting test (20WBCT).

The taxonomy of the carpet vipers has changed a lot and continues to do so, as might be expected with snakes with huge ranges and often fragmented populations. Originally, all carpet vipers were considered to be of two species. One of these is Burton’s Carpet Viper (Echis coloratus), occurring in Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula. The other is the ‘typical’ carpet or saw-scaled viper, Echis carinatus. As originally defined, this snake occupied a gigantic but fragmented range, from Sri Lanka up through India, westwards to the Arabian Peninsula and right across the northern half of Africa to Mauritania. Taxonomic work has now split Echis coloratus into two species and the Echis carinatus ‘superspecies’ into 10 species to date, six of which occur in the northern half of Africa.

Carpet vipers are snakes of semi-desert and dry savanna, with a few exceptions (Burton’s Carpet Viper favours rocky desert, the West African Carpet Viper is in moist savanna and even forest margins, and in Kenya the North-east African Carpet Viper enters barren lava fields and rocky desert). Almost certainly a single ancestral African carpet viper had a much more continuous range during parts of the last 20 million years. The vegetation of the area that is now covered by the Sahara fluctuated, and at times would have provided suitable savanna habitat for these snakes. Subsequent climatic fluctuations between more and less arid conditions has in some cases fragmented the range of these snakes, or in other cases opened up corridors that allow separate populations to come together. Consequently, there are many apparently isolated populations (relicts) clinging on in patches of suitable habitat all over the northern half of Africa, and there is also evidence that formerly separate populations are now joined (particularly in the Sahel). Work continues; several times in the last few years populations have been moved from one taxon to another by researchers. This is a complex evolutionary scenario, not fully understood and still changing as the Earth’s climate changes.

Identification: A small, robust viper with a pear-shaped head and a thin neck; in Africa, known only in eastern Egypt. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, 8–11% of total length. The scales are small on the head, rough and heavily keeled; in 31–35 rows at midbody; ventrals 174–205; subcaudals 42–52. Maximum size about 80cm (possibly slightly larger), average 30–60cm; hatchlings 12–14cm. This species is quite variable in colour and pattern, especially in Arabia, but eastern Egyptian and Sinai specimens are pale grey, brownish or biscuit-coloured, with a series of pale grey or whitish saddles along the back, rufous-brown patches between the saddles, and dark spots on the flanks. There is usually a diffuse dark stripe extending backwards from the eye.

Habitat and Distribution: Usually in rocky desert. It is fond of dry stone hills, rock pavement, dry wadis and ravines, often in areas where there is some vegetation. It seems to avoid areas of loose sand, but is sometimes found on steep slopes and often near water sources. This species is found from sea level to quite high altitudes (2,500m) in parts of its range. In Africa, it is known only from eastern Egypt. A few specimens have been collected from the hills and rocky wadis just east and south-east of Cairo; from there it extends eastwards across the Sinai Peninsula, north into Israel, and southwards along the west bank of the Gulf of Suez, just entering extreme north-east Sudan. Also on the western and southern coasts of the Arabian Peninsula.

Medical Significance: Its small range in Africa and tendency to live in rocky desert lessen the dangers posed by this snake. However, in parts of the Middle East it has been found to be common in agricultural areas, and it is active on the ground at night, increasing the risk. The venom is cytotoxic and haemorrhagic. Antivenom is available. Experimentally in mice, the venom has an IV toxicity of 0.575mg/kg. Local pain and swelling are common and, in severe cases (about 10%), swelling may involve the whole limb and is associated with bruising, haemorrhagic blisters and necrosis. Systemic symptoms appear 15–120 minutes after the bite and include nausea, vomiting, headache, and spontaneous bleeding from the gums, nose, gastrointestinal and urinary tracts and recent wounds. Most patients have incoagulable blood by the time they are admitted to hospital. Do the 20WBCT. About 20% have thrombocytopenia; a few patients develop acute renal failure. Haemostatic dysfunction persists for up to nine days unless antivenom is given. Other abnormalities include hypotension, shock, loss of consciousness, ECG changes, neutrophil leucocytosis, proteinuria and microscopic haematuria with casts. A few fatalities are reported. Compared to envenoming by other Echis species, Burton’s Carpet Viper seems to be more likely to cause thrombocytopenia and acute kidney injury, but the case fatality is lower. Administration of antivenom as late as two days after the bite may have dramatic and immediate effect. Blood clotting times should be carefully monitored in victims.

Taxonomic Notes: Snakes of this species from the extreme eastern side of its range, in eastern Oman and the United Arab Emirates, were elevated in 2004 into a new, full species, the Oman Saw-scaled Viper (Echis omanensis).

Burton’s Carpet Viper, Echis coloratus.

Habitat and Distribution: Near-desert, semi-desert and dry savanna, between sea level and 1,250m. As presently defined, this snake has a disjunct distribution; this may be as a result of climatic change causing isolation, or undercollecting, although the variability of the genus also causes problems. Apparently isolated populations are known from south-west and coastal Libya, Egypt, south-west Sudan, northern Central African Republic and parts of northern Kenya. An apparently coherent population occurs from south-east Egypt into most of eastern Sudan, east to Eritrea, low north-east Ethiopia and northern Somalia. Another coherent population also occurs from extreme south-east South Sudan into south-western Ethiopia and northern Kenya, south past Lake Turkana to Lake Baringo, and east along the Uaso Nyiro River.

Medical Significance: This is a dangerous snake; it is often abundant, very willing to bite if approached and active on the ground at night, and it lives in farming areas. Many people are bitten every year in its range; in some areas fatalities approach 20%. The venom is cytotoxic and haemorrhagic. Antivenom is available. Clinical features include local pain, swelling, blistering, abdominal pain, vomiting, bleeding from injection sites and recent injuries, haematuria, bleeding from the gums, haematemesis, melaena, menorrhagia, generalised bruising, periorbital bleeding, shock, fever, anaemia and leucocytosis, local pain, swelling, blistering and a generalised bleeding tendency. Bites will need to be treated in a well-equipped hospital; start with the 20WBCT. Antivenom therapy may be necessary.

Taxonomic Notes: Several subspecies or full species of this snake have been described, based on varying scale counts, colour differences, unusual localities, etc.; names used include Echis megalocephalus and Echis varius. The snakes of north-east Africa, north and eastwards from the Awash Valley, show variation that indicates there may be several evolutionary species present, each evolving separately. Our treatment reflects the situation at the time of writing.

North-east African Carpet Viper, Echis pyramidum.

Natural History: Terrestrial, although it occasionally climbs into low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. It moves relatively quickly for a viper. It is nocturnal, being active from twilight onwards, and most active during the first few hours of the night. During the day it hides in holes, under rocks, or under or in logs, brush piles, etc. A spirited snake; when threatened, it forms a series of C-shaped coils, which are shifted against each other in opposite directions, and this friction between the scales produces a sound like water falling on a very hot plate. At the same time the snake may be moving backwards or forwards. If further agitated, it will strike continuously and vigorously, to a relatively large distance; it may strike so enthusiastically that it overbalances. It may even move towards an aggressor, a most unusual behaviour in a snake. Females lay clutches of 8–22 eggs, between August and October. Captive specimens hatched after two months. It eats a wide range of prey, including invertebrates (especially scorpions and centipedes), small mammals and reptiles.

Medical Significance: This is a dangerous snake; it is often abundant across a huge area of Africa, and it is the most common snake in northern Mali. It is very willing to bite if approached, is active on the ground at night and lives in farming areas. Many people must be bitten every year in its range, yet there seem to be few documented cases. The venom is cytotoxic and haemorrhagic. Antivenom is available. The clinical picture is probably similar to that of the previous species, with swelling, bleeding and incoagulable blood; bites will need to be treated in a well-equipped hospital, and antivenom therapy may be necessary. Start with the 20WBCT.

Taxonomic Notes: One method of distinguishing this species from the very similar North-east African Carpet Viper (Echis pyramidum) is by the absence of spotting on the underside. However, recent work indicates that E. leucogaster in Mali often do have spots, which suggests that there is a degree of overlap between the two species.

White-bellied Carpet Viper, Echis leucogaster.

Habitat and Distribution: Semi-desert and dry and moist savanna, even into forest margins; between sea level and 1,100m. A snake of the central West African savanna; it occurs from western Nigeria west to north-east Guinea, and southwards in the Dahomey Gap to the coast. An isolated record exists from Trarza Region, extreme south-west Mauritania. As originally defined, this snake had a far larger range, but snakes from central Nigeria eastwards are now assigned to Roman’s Carpet Viper (Echis romani), and those west of Mali are largely the Mali Carpet Viper (E. jogeri).

Natural History: As with other carpet vipers, it is terrestrial, but may climb low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. It moves relatively quickly for a viper. It is nocturnal, being active from twilight onwards, and is most active during the first few hours of the night. During the day it hides in holes, under rocks, or under or in logs, brush piles, etc. When disturbed, it readily forms C-shaped coils, stridulates and strikes vigorously to a long distance, moving backwards or forwards; it may strike so enthusiastically that it overbalances. It may even move towards an aggressor, a most unusual behaviour in a snake. Females lay clutches of 6–28 eggs, usually in March or April; these hatch after two months, to coincide with the rainy season. It eats a wide range of prey, including invertebrates (especially scorpions and centipedes) and vertebrates (amphibians, lizards, other snakes and mammals).

Habitat and Distribution: Dry and moist savanna, between sea level and 800m. It occurs from western Senegal and the Gambia into northern Guinea and western Mali.

Natural History: As with other carpet vipers, it is terrestrial, but it may climb low bushes to avoid hot or wet surfaces. It moves relatively quickly for a viper. It is nocturnal, being active from twilight onwards, and is most active during the first few hours of the night. During the day it hides in holes, under rocks, or under or in logs, brush piles, etc. When disturbed, it readily forms C-shaped coils, stridulates and strikes vigorously to a long distance, moving backwards or forwards; it may strike so enthusiastically that it overbalances, and may even move towards an aggressor, a most unusual behaviour in a snake. Females lay eggs that probably hatch after two months, to coincide with the rainy season. It eats a wide range of prey, including invertebrates (especially scorpions and centipedes) and vertebrates (amphibians, lizards, other snakes and mammals).

Medical Significance: This is a very dangerous snake. It is often abundant across a huge area of Africa. It causes huge numbers of snakebites in Senegal and Mali. It is very willing to bite if approached, is active on the ground at night and lives in farming areas. Many people are bitten every year. Antivenom is available. The venom is cytotoxic and haemorrhagic. The clinical picture is pain and severe local swelling, blistering and necrosis, with severe haemostatic disorders leading to systemic bleeding. Bites will need to be treated in a well-equipped hospital; antivenom therapy may be necessary, and replacement therapy and blood transfusions may also be needed. Start with the 20WBCT.

Identification: A small, pale carpet viper, endemic to north-east Somalia. It has a pear-shaped head and a thin neck. The top of the head is covered with small scales, and the prominent, pale yellowish eyes have vertical pupils and are set near the front of the head. The body is cylindrical or subtriangular in section and the tail short, around 10–12% of total length. The scales are rough and heavily keeled; in 24–25 rows at midbody; ventrals 144–149; subcaudals single, 28–30. Maximum known size about 35cm. The ground colour has never been described in living animals, but is probably grey or brown; there is usually a series of pale, oblique cross-bars along the back, with darker blotches, often with even darker edging, in between. The flanks are marked with irregular darker blotches of varying size. The underside is white, with occasional reddish spots near the ventral scale margins.

Habitat and Distribution: Dry savanna and semi-desert, at low altitude. It is known only from Bari and Nugal Regions of north-east Somalia.

Natural History: Unknown, but presumably similar to other members of the genus: nocturnal and terrestrial, shelters in holes and under ground cover, forms C-shaped coils when disturbed and strikes readily, lays eggs, and eats a range of small vertebrates and possibly invertebrates.

Medical Significance: Unknown, but the venom is probably similar to that of the North-east African Carpet Viper (Echis pyramidum).

Taxonomic Notes: Described in 1990, it differs from the North-east African Carpet Viper, which occurs further west, only in having fewer ventral scales. It might just be an ecotype of that species, but it does seem to be an isolated population, and a number of other distinctive endemic species occur in the area. This genus is absent from most of Somalia, except the north, which is curious given the wide range of suitable habitat for these dry-country specialists.

Somali Carpet Viper, Echis hughesi.

A genus of broad-headed brown or biscuit-coloured desert vipers, rarely larger than 70cm. Four species are known; two are widespread over North Africa, one is confined to Tunisia, and the fourth is from the Middle East (almost reaching far eastern Egypt). Two of the three African species have huge ranges, and are implicated in many snakebite cases in North Africa. They are dangerous because they are on the ground, often well hidden in sand, and are active at dusk and in the early hours of the night, so are liable to be trodden on by people without adequate footwear. These snakes appear to have a haemorrhagic venom; bites usually result in local pain and swelling, complicated by necrosis in some cases. Nausea, vomiting, coagulopathy and spontaneous bleeding, including cerebral haemorrhage, have been observed in some cases. Although there are no credible reports of deaths in the last 100 years or so, some documented bites to snake keepers have been life-threatening. Antivenom is available.

Natural History: Terrestrial and slow-moving, although it can strike very quickly and can also sidewind. It is nocturnal in the summer months, active from dusk onwards, but may bask during the day (especially during winter and early spring). It shelters in rodent burrows or other holes, under ground cover (wood, rocks, etc.) or hidden in a bush or among grass tufts. It often buries (or partially buries) itself in soft sand, sometimes in the lee of a bush or rock, but may simply coil up in a sheltered place out of the sun and wind, where it may be surprisingly visible. This snake is fairly placid, but can strike quickly, to some distance, and when threatened can shift its coils into C-shapes and rub them together (as do carpet vipers), producing a hissing, crackling sound; from this display it will also strike. Females lay 10–23 eggs, which hatch after 45–80 days’ incubation. This species is known to move long distances at night in search of prey. The diet includes rodents, lizards and birds (the fact that it eats birds indicates how quickly it strikes). A captive individual in Cairo Zoo took six to eight birds a year, and lived 14 years in captivity. One of the more common hieroglyphic characters in Egypt is a Sahara Horned Viper. In some areas it is greatly feared; it is believed to be able to spring a huge distance into the air to bite or even to be able to fly.

Sahara Horned Viper, Cerastes cerastes.

Identification: A small, flattened, stout viper with strangely angled eyes on top of its head, in sand dunes in the Sahara and environs. The head is broad, flat and triangular, and covered with small scales. The eye is prominent, on the side of the head, and has a vertical pupil in bright light. The neck is thin. The body is broad and flattened, and the tail short, 7–14% of total length. The scales are heavily keeled; in 23–29 rows at midbody; ventrals 102–125; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 18–26. Maximum size about 50cm, but this is large; most specimens 20–30cm; hatchlings 12–15cm. The ground colour is yellowish, buff, reddish or greyish brown, with a series of almost rectangular brown blotches along the back. A dark line extends backwards from each eye. The tail tip is black in females.

Habitat and Distribution: A desert snake, usually found in dunes or other areas of soft sand; from sea level to over 1,000m, possibly higher. It occurs throughout the Sahara, from western Mauritania eastwards to northern Sudan and Egypt, north to the coast (excluded from the north Moroccan and Algerian coast by the Atlas Mountains). In Egypt it extends across the Sinai, and north into Israel.

Medical Significance: This is a nocturnal terrestrial snake with a huge range, which hides by partially or totally buying itself. A number of bites probably occur every year as walkers tread on the snake. No fatalities are known; a study in Israel found that most bites resulted in only minor local swelling and small haematomas, and one victim showed slight abnormalities in his coagulation profile. However, bite victims should visit a hospital.

Sahara Sand Viper, Cerastes vipera.

Habitat and Distribution: A desert snake, known from Bani Kheddache and Remada, between 300m and 500m, in south-central Tunisia.

Natural History: Unknown, but its resemblance to the Sahara Sand Viper suggests its habits might be similar; that is, terrestrial and nocturnal, buries itself in sand or hides in holes, forms C-shaped coils when disturbed, gives birth to live young (a captive female gave birth to five young), and eats small desert lizards.

Medical Significance: The venom and its effects are probably similar to those of the Sahara Sand Viper.

Taxonomic Notes: An interesting snake; the presence of horns suggests a relationship to the Sahara Horned Viper (Cerastes cerastes), but the general habitus and low ventral count suggests it may be related to the Sahara Sand Viper; it has been suggested that it is either a hybrid or a sport. Further research and specimens may clarify the situation.

Böhme’s Sand Viper, Cerastes boehmei.

A genus of small, stout, frog-eating vipers, rarely larger than 75cm or so. They are found in sub-Saharan Africa in savanna and forest, and occasionally in semi-desert along watercourses. Seven species are known. Unusually for vipers, they have a round pupil and nine large scales on top of the head (in most other vipers these are small), and they lay eggs. Despite their common name, they are active by day and night. They have a somewhat primitive fang rotation movement and their fangs are relatively short. Several species have exceptionally long venom glands that extend well down the neck; the large quantities of venom thus produced assist in envenoming large frogs.

Identification: A small adder, with a head that is narrow and long for a night adder, tapering to a narrow but rounded, not upturned, snout. The head is slightly distinct from the neck, the eye is medium-sized with a round pupil, and the top of the head is covered with nine large scales. The body is cylindrical or slightly depressed and the tail is short, 9–12% of total length. The scales are soft, velvety and feebly keeled; in 17 (occasionally 15, 18 or 19) rows at midbody; ventrals 119–149; subcaudals 18–35 (higher counts usually males). Maximum size about 65cm, average 30–50cm; hatchlings about 13–14cm. The back is brown, or it may be pinkish or greyish brown, and there are a number of irregular or vaguely rectangular black patches all along the back, interspersed with rufous or brown blotches. There are usually two distinct narrow, pale dorsolateral stripes that run the length of the body. There is a sprinkling of black scales and oblique black bars on the flanks. On the head is a characteristic V-shaped mark, which may be black, or black-edged with a brown infilling. The belly is dark-coloured to dark cream.

Habitat and Distribution: In moist savanna and woodland, between 800m and 1,800m. It occurs in extreme south-west Tanzania, at Tatanda, then south-west across north-eastern and northern Zambia and south-eastern DR Congo, into most of central Angola, with an isolated population in eastern Rwanda.

Natural History: Little known, but probably rather similar to other night adders (terrestrial, slow-moving, active by day and night, inflates the body when threatened and hisses and puffs, and will strike if further molested). This species may be locally abundant. It is known to feed on clawed frogs, which might mean it is more aquatic than other night adders. It lays eggs. It was regarded at one time as simply a colour variant of the Rhombic Night Adder (Causus rhombeatus), but the ranges of the two species overlap throughout the Two-striped Night Adder’s range, and this species also has slightly lower ventral counts than the Rhombic Night Adder.

Two-striped Night Adder, Causus bilineatus.

Identification: A small, stout night adder of southeastern Africa, with an upturned nose. The short head is slightly distinct from the neck, it has a medium-sized eye with a round pupil, and the top of the head is covered with nine large scales. The tip of the snout is quite distinctly upturned. The body is cylindrical or slightly depressed and the tail is short, 7–9% of total length in males and 5–7% in females. The scales are soft, velvety and feebly keeled; in 13–17 (usually 17) rows at midbody; ventrals 109–130 (higher counts usually females); subcaudals 10–19. Maximum size about 42cm, average 20–35cm; hatchlings about 10cm. The back is brown, or it may be pinkish or greyish brown, and there are 20–30 clear, dark, pale-edged rhombic blotches all along the back, and a sprinkling of black scales and oblique black bars on the flanks. On the head is a characteristic V-shaped mark, usually solid black, a black bar is often present behind the eye, and the upper lip scales are usually black-edged. The belly is cream, pearly white or pinkish grey; it may be glossy black or grey in juveniles.

Habitat and Distribution: Moist and dry savanna and coastal thicket, from sea level to about 1,800m. It occurs south from Malindi on the Kenyan coast, extending across most of south-east Tanzania, Malawi, eastern Zambia, Mozambique and parts of Zimbabwe, into northern South Africa and reaching Kwazulu-Natal on the South African coast; an unequivocal inhabitant of the eastern and southern Africa coastal mosaic.

Medical Significance: A mildly venomous species, quite common in parts of its range and liable to be trodden on. Antivenom is not available and should not be necessary. Documented cases are characterised by swelling, sometimes extensive, local pain, which may be intense, often fever and sometimes lymphadenopathy. Recovery usually takes a few days. The victim in one South African case experienced difficulty in breathing, but other factors of the case suggest this was an anaphylactic reaction to the venom; the victim had three previous night adder bites.

Snouted Night Adder, Causus defilippii.

Habitat and Distribution: In forest and woodland, swampy areas associated with forest and recently deforested areas, from sea level to about 2,100m. It occurs from the forests of far western Kenya and the northern shore of Lake Victoria in Uganda, west and south-west from the Albertine Rift right across the Central African forests to Nigeria, and south to northern Zambia and north-east Angola; it reappears west of the Dahomey Gap in Ghana, west to southern Sierra Leone. This species is also known from the Imatong Mountains in South Sudan.

Natural History: Terrestrial and secretive. Fairly slow-moving, but strikes quite quickly. Despite its name, it seems to be most active during the day among the shade and leaf litter of the forest floor. It swims well and has colonised islands in Lake Victoria. When inactive, it hides in holes, brush piles, tree root clusters, under ground cover, etc. If threatened, it responds by inflating the body with air, which makes the markings stand out, and hissing and puffing; it may then raise the forepart of the body off the ground, into a coil, with the head back, and strike. It eats frogs and toads, and lays 4–8 eggs.

Forest Night Adder, Causus lichtensteinii.

Identification: A small, stout brown night adder, found in a wide range of habitats in Central and West Africa. The fairly short head is slightly distinct from the neck, and it has a rounded snout and a medium-sized eye with a round pupil. The top of the head is covered with nine large scales. The body is cylindrical or slightly depressed and the tail is short, 7–9% of total length in females and 9–11% in males. The scales are soft and feebly keeled; in 17–22 rows at midbody; ventrals 118–154; subcaudals 15–26 (higher counts usually males). Maximum size about 70cm (possibly slightly larger), average 30–60cm; hatchlings 13–16cm. The body is usually some shade of brown, pinkish brown or grey above, with dark crossbars or rhombic markings down the centre of the back and dark bars or spotting on the flanks. Occasional individuals have virtually no markings and the degree of contact between the rhombic markings and the ground colour varies greatly, even in the same area. There is usually a V-shape on the neck, extending onto the head, that is uniformly dark or with dark edges and a light centre. The underside may be white, cream or pinkish grey, uniform or with each scale black-edged so the belly looks finely barred.

Habitat and Distribution: Occurs in a huge range of habitats, from deep forest to woodland, moist and dry savanna and semi-desert; from sea level to 1,800m. It is found westwards from south-west Ethiopia, western Uganda and South Sudan, right across Central and West Africa to Senegal and south-west Mauritania, and south to north-west Angola and south-eastern DR Congo.

Medical Significance: A mildly venomous species, quite common in parts of its range and liable to be trodden on. Antivenom is not available and should not be necessary. Documented cases are characterised by swelling (sometimes extensive), local pain (often intense), local discolouration, often fever and sometimes lymphadenopathy. There is rarely necrosis. Recovery usually takes a few days. In a remarkable study on a Liberian rubber plantation, over 90% of all snakebites were caused by this species, and about 30% of these were ‘dry bites’, where no symptoms resulted. There were no deaths.

Taxonomic Notes: In places this snake’s range overlaps that of the Rhombic Night Adder (Causus rhombeatus), and intermediate specimens are known.

West African Night Adder, Causus maculatus.

Habitat and Distribution: Coastal savanna and thicket, dry and moist savanna and woodland, from sea level to 1,800m. It has the most curiously disjunct distribution of any African snake, with what appears to be at least five large, isolated populations. It is known from the Somali and Kenyan coast; from the Lake Victoria basin to the far slopes of the Albertine Rift; from the west coast of Angola; from central Sudan south up the Nile into South Sudan, extreme northwest Kenya and south-west Ethiopia; and in south-western Chad and eastern Cameroon. Isolated records are known from northern DR Congo, northern Central African Republic and a handful of disjunct localities in Nigeria. It seems likely that some of these may prove to be discrete species.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but will climb low vegetation in pursuit of frogs. It is active by day and night, and will bask. This snake is fairly slow-moving, but strikes quite quickly. It swims well. When inactive, it hides in holes, brush piles, under ground cover, etc. If threatened, it responds like other night adders, hissing and puffing and striking. The diet comprises amphibians. It lays 4–12 eggs; captive specimens have been recorded producing clutches at two-month intervals, without any noticeable breeding season, but Somali females laid 4–11 eggs in July.

Medical Significance: Little is known of its venom, but it is presumably similar to that of other night adders. No antivenom is available.

Velvety-green Night Adder, Causus resimus.

Identification: A small, stout viper with a fairly short head that is slightly distinct from the neck, a rounded snout and a medium-sized eye with a round pupil. The top of the head is covered with nine large scales. The body is cylindrical or slightly depressed and the tail is short, 9–12% of total length. The scales are soft and feebly keeled; in 15–23 rows at midbody; ventrals 134–166; subcaudals 21–35 (higher counts in males). Maximum size about 95cm (possibly slightly larger), average 30–60cm; hatchlings 13–16cm. The body is usually some shade of brown on the back (may be pinkish or greyish brown), occasionally olive-green, and some snakes show a limited ability to change colour. There are usually 20–30 dark, pale-edged rhombic blotches all along the back, and a sprinkling of black scales and oblique black bars on the flanks. The rhombic patches may lack white edging; some snakes are quite patternless. On the head is a characteristic V-shaped mark, which may be solid black, or simply a black outline with brown inside. The belly is cream to pinkish grey; the ventral scales may be uniform, but sometimes each scale grades from light to dark and the belly thus looks finely barred.

Habitat and Distribution: In moist savanna, grassland and woodland, from sea level to 2,200m, nearly always in the vicinity of water sources. It occurs north from the Western Cape in South Africa up the eastern side of Africa, spreading west to Angola and southern DR Congo, and from East Africa westwards across the top of the forest belt to eastern Nigeria. Isolated populations occur in central Ethiopia, southern Sudan and South Sudan. It is largely absent from the south-east, where the Snouted Night Adder (Causus defilippii) occurs, and in West Africa is replaced by the West African Night Adder (Causus maculatus).

Medical Significance: A mildly venomous species, quite common in parts of its range and liable to be trodden on. Antivenom is not available and should not be necessary. Documented cases are characterised by swelling, sometimes extensive, local pain, sometimes local haemorrhaging (more obvious in light-skinned victims), often fever and sometimes lymphadenopathy. There is rarely necrosis. Recovery usually takes a few days. In the early twentieth century, in southern and eastern Africa, this snake had a fearsome reputation (two of its early names were ‘death adder’ and ‘demon adder’), but no human fatalities have been reliably reported. Along with the West African Night Adder, this species has enormously elongate venom glands, and although the venom is no more toxic than that of other night adders, it is produced in larger quantities, to enable the snake to immobilise large toads. Research indicates that its venom does affect blood-clotting times (although genuinely incoagulable blood has rarely been noted following a bite from this snake) and South African polyvalent antivenom does neutralise it. Dogs, even large ones, have been killed by this snake; all showed swelling and necrosis.

Rhombic Night Adder, Causus rhombeatus.

Identification: A small adder, either unpatterned or with narrow dorsal bars, described in 2014 from south-central Africa. The head is short, broad and slightly distinct from the neck, the snout is not upturned, and the eye is medium-sized with a round pupil. The top of the head is covered with nine large scales. The body is cylindrical or slightly depressed and the tail is short, 9–14% of total length (longer in males). The scales are soft, velvety and feebly keeled; in 16–18 rows at midbody; ventrals 130–139; subcaudals 24–33. The largest known specimen was 68.5cm, the others 35–55cm. Hatchling size is unknown. The back is brown or pinkish, either without markings, with very subdued markings or with narrow black cross-bars, and, like other species, with a V-shape on the head. The belly is grey to greyish white.

Habitat and Distribution: In moist savanna and woodland, between 1,200m and 1,600m. It is known from only a handful of records; the range extends from Ugalla Game Reserve in Tanzania to Mbala and Ikelenge in Zambia and Cuando Cubango in south-west Angola.

Natural History: Little known, but probably rather similar to other night adders (terrestrial, slow-moving, active by day and night, inflates the body when threatened and hisses and puffs, will strike if further molested, lays eggs and eats amphibians). This species is named after the Danish herpetologist Jens Rasmussen, who did major revisionary work on African snakes.

Medical Significance: Unknown, but presumably similar to other night adders. Antivenom is not available and should not be necessary.

Rasmussen’s Night Adder, Causus rasmusseni.

A genus of broad-headed vipers, found in eastern Egypt and the Middle East, and reaching 80–90cm. Three species are known. Originally there was only one, the False Horned Viper (Pseudocerastes persicus), the two subspecies of which have now been elevated to full species level. A third, with a bizarre spider-like tail, was described in 2006 from western Iran. The two species of false horned viper have a huge range, from Egypt east to Afghanistan. They are terrestrial, secretive and largely nocturnal, and must cause a fair number of bites to those who dwell in these dry areas, but little seems to have been documented. In the laboratory, the venom of the species that reaches Egypt, the Western False Horned Viper (P. fieldi), surprisingly not only seems to lack the coagulopathic toxins that the eastern form has, but also has neurotoxic components, which is unviperlike. The eastern form, the Persian Horned Viper (P. persicus), has a more typical viper venom. This has implications for medical treatment, as the only antivenom available for treating the bites of both P. persicus and P. fieldi, produced in Iran, is raised from venom from Iranian P. persicus.

Identification: A short, stout viper with prominent horns, found in the Sinai Peninsula. The head is broad, flat and triangular, and covered with small scales. The eye is prominent, on the side of the head, and has a vertical pupil in bright light. The neck is thin. There is a stout, backward-curving horn above each eye, consisting of a cluster of scales. The body is broad and slightly flattened, and the tail is fairly short, 11–16% of total length. Oddly for a viper, the flank scales show no or only very slight keeling; the middorsal scales are keeled. The scales are in 21–23 rows at midbody; ventrals 127–142; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 35–38. Maximum size about 90cm, most specimens 40–70cm; hatchlings 15–19cm. The colour is light brown, yellowish, pinkish or mottled grey, with darker (usually brown or reddish) blotches or cross-bands, which are often very straight-edged, and a row of blotches or dots along the sides. These may be very faded, and in some individuals the markings are so faded the snake just looks a uniform colour. There is a dark line through and behind the eye. The tail tip is often black, and the belly surface is white.

Habitat and Distribution: Occurs in semi-desert and desert country, in sandy, gravelly and rocky regions, but prefers areas with some vegetation. It is rarely found in dunes or other areas of soft sand, or on very steep slopes, although it occurs on scree rubble. It tends to avoid human habitation. This species is found from sea level to over 2,200m. In Africa, it occurs in the Sinai (although not in the dune fields in the north), then eastwards to western Iran.

Habitat and Distribution: Occurs in light woodland (sclerophyllous forest), steppe meadow and semi-desert, often on or near rocky hills; it prefers areas with some vegetation and preferably near open water; in Morocco often in hill valleys. It is found from sea level to over 2,000m. It occurs from northern Western Sahara through Morocco to northern Algeria, Tunisia and north-west Libya, with a credible record from north-east Libya.

Natural History: Terrestrial and fairly slow-moving, but can strike rapidly, to a large distance. However, it is a fairly placid snake, although it can hiss very loudly. It is usually nocturnal, but sometimes active by day or at dusk, especially in the spring. It shelters in thickets (including of introduced prickly pear, as well as natural succulents), under bushes and in rock crevices, and is known to enter caves and abandoned mine galleries in the summer. In the higher parts of its range it hibernates in the winter. It mates in April or May, and lays 13–40 eggs in June or July; in captivity the eggs hatch after 40–60 days. The diet includes mammals and birds; juveniles eat lizards. It both hunts from ambush and actively prowls, investigating recesses for prey.

Taxonomic Notes: The two colour forms of this snake (with obvious and faded/indistinct markings) were until recently regarded as separate species, Daboia mauritanica and Daboia deserti. However, recent work indicates that the two are conspecific, although isolating events as a result of climatic fluctuations during the Pleistocene have created at least seven lineages, one from central Morocco eastwards to Libya, and the rest all in western and central Morocco.

Moorish Viper, Daboia mauritanica.

A genus of three large vipers of the eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. One subspecies of the most widespread form, Macrovipera lebetina, has been described from Algeria and Tunisia, under the name M. lebetina transmediterranea. Few specimens are known. The nominate subspecies is a large, dangerous snake, and its venom causes swelling, pain, necrosis and coagulopathy; death has been caused by acute renal failure. A bite from one is a medical emergency and must be treated in a well-equipped hospital.

Identification: A very rare, pale, medium-sized adder, from northern Algeria and Tunisia. The head is broad and has a rounded snout, with flat sides and a pronounced angle between the top and sides of the head. The head shields, including the supraoculars, are fragmented and keeled. The neck is thin and the body stout and slightly depressed. The tail is 10–13% of total length. The dorsal scales are strongly keeled; in 25 rows at midbody; ventrals 150–164; subcaudals 37–51 (higher counts in males). The largest adults were just under 1m; the juveniles are probably around 15–20cm. This species is usually grey, with darker, usually brown cross-bars along the centre of the back; these are often offset along the actual spine. There is also a series of 34–41 vertical, tapering brown or rufous bars on the flanks.

Habitat and Distribution: Known solely from a handful of specimens from the vicinity of Oran and Algiers (Algeria) and Tunis (Tunisia), in what were oak woodlands on hill slopes near the coast. Other subspecies in Eurasia inhabit broken country, rocky hills and valleys where there is a reasonable amount of vegetation and also water sources.

Medical Significance: A very rare snake, and thus unlikely to cause many snakebites, although it is highly dangerous. Bites by other subspecies of this snake are known to be life-threatening, and cause bruising, acute pain, swelling, incoagulable blood and necrosis. Antivenom is available. The venom of the typical race (Macrovipera lebetina lebetina) has an experimental IV toxicity in mice of 0.80mg/kg, and bites are potentially lethal. However, an analysis of its venom indicates it inhibits the growth of tumours and thus may have a medical use.

Taxonomic Notes: Some authorities doubt the existence of this form in North Africa, as the localities of the types are old and vague and all scale counts lie within the range of other subspecies; however, others accept it. Captive specimens are present in medical research facilities in Tunisia, although their provenance is unknown. It may have been present but now extinct, as its original habitats are now greatly altered, or it might have been introduced from elsewhere in the Mediterranean. Further research may clarify the situation.

North African Blunt-nosed Viper, Macrovipera lebetina transmediterranea.

A genus of over 20 species of small vipers, some with huge ranges and others with very restricted ranges, across Europe and northern Asia. Most look quite similar, either grey or brown with a wavy darker stripe down the centre of the back. They sometimes hybridise, and the status of some taxa is debated. Their venom largely causes swelling, bruising and pain, and occasionally necrosis; deaths are very unusual but a few are reported. Anaphylactic reactions sometimes occur. Originally, two species were described from North Africa, but recent research indicates that just a single, fairly variable species occurs, which includes a dwarf form that is a high-altitude ecotype.

Identification: A small viper with an upturned snout, from the high-rainfall areas north of the desert in the Maghreb. The head is distinct from the neck, and the head scales are small (apart from the supraoculars). The body is fairly stout and the tail is short, 10–14% of total length (longer tails usually males). The dorsal scales are strongly keeled; in 19–23 rows at midbody (the high-altitude populations usually 19–21); ventrals 124–138; subcaudals 29–47 (higher counts in males). The largest adults at lower altitude reach 60cm (average 25–40cm); at high altitude they rarely exceed 35cm. Juveniles are 12–16cm. The colour is grey or brown, usually with a wavy darker brown line down the centre of the back; this may break up into bars, and the dorsal markings may be so faded as to be almost invisible. The flanks are marked by large, dark, amorphous blotches. Usually a dark bar extends backwards from the eye, broadening on the neck, and this may extend down the flanks. The underside is grey, sometimes very dark, and speckled to a greater or lesser extent.

Habitat and Distribution: Occupies (or originally occupied) quite a wide range of habitats, including coastal dunes, grasslands, agricultural land, open deciduous forests, montane meadows, rocky hills and scree slopes, from sea level to over 2,900m. It occurs from the Tichka Plateau in the western High Atlas of Morocco, eastwards through the High Atlas and Middle Atlas, in the Rif Mountains and along the northern Moroccan coastline, into the Tlemcen Mountains of western Algeria. It reappears in the central Tell Atlas of northern Algeria and in the Medjerda Hills on the north-west Tunisian border. It is also found throughout most of Spain, except the extreme north.

Medical Significance: In its North African range this is now a very rare snake, and thus unlikely to cause many snakebites. Bites by most snakes of this genus are hardly ever fatal. Symptoms include bruising, local pain and swelling, and sometimes coagulopathy. A few cases involving anaphylaxis have been noted. Although an antivenom raised directly from venom of this snake does not seem to be available, the monospecific European Adder (Vipera berus) antivenom (ViperaTAb) has been shown to be extremely effective against its bites. However, antivenom for bites by Vipera species is needed in only a small minority of very severe cases.

Taxonomic Notes: For a long time there were assumed to be two species of Vipera in North Africa, V. latastei (subspecies V. l. gaditana) and the so-called Atlas Mountain Viper (V. monticola), a dwarf species of the High Atlas Mountains. However, recent genetic work shows that, in fact, there is only a single species, and what was V. monticola is merely a dwarf, high-altitude ecotype of V. latastei, confined to the High Atlas. Unfortunately, the lower-altitude populations of this snake are virtually, if not totally, extinct and the high-altitude populations are under severe threat, due to long-term changes in land usage to agriculture and urbanisation.

Lataste’s Viper, Vipera latastei.

A family of dangerous snakes with short, immoveable poison fangs at the front of the upper jaw. Many are of international medical significance, and some have powerful neurotoxic venoms that can cause death rapidly if untreated. Around 375 species and over 50 genera are known worldwide in tropical regions. There are none in Europe, but there has been a remarkable radiation of elapids in Australia, where they are the largest group of snakes. Members of the family include the mambas (Dendroaspis), cobras, King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), kraits (Bungarus), sea snakes (Hydrophiinae), coral snakes, African garter snakes (Elapsoidea) and taipans (Oxyuranus). All African land elapids belong to the subfamily Elapinae. The subfamily Hydrophiinae consists of the Australian terrestrial elapids and the sea snakes, one species of which, the Yellow-bellied Sea Snake (Hydrophis platurus), occurs off Africa’s east-facing coasts.

Natural History: A fast-moving, diurnal, secretive tree snake that climbs expertly but will descend to the ground, and is sometimes seen crossing roads. It may climb very high in trees. It sleeps at night in the branches, not seeking a hole to sleep in but coiled up in a thick patch, and will also shelter in and under makuti (coconut thatch) roofs. Individuals may emerge to sunbathe in the early morning; anecdotal evidence indicates they are most active in the morning. This is an even-natured snake, not known to spread a modified hood or threaten with an open mouth like the Black Mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis). It is not aggressive; if threatened it tries to escape, and rarely tries to bite. Male combat has been observed in South Africa in June. Mating has been observed in April, May and July in southern Tanzania. It lays up to 17 eggs, roughly 30 × 60mm; these take two to three months to hatch. Hatchlings have been collected between December and February in southern Tanzania, and in June and July in Watamu, Kenya. This species feeds mostly on birds and their nestlings, rodents and bats, and occasionally lizards. Tanzanian snakes took a Lilac-breasted Roller (Coracias caudatus) and a Southern Blue-eared Glossy Starling (Lamprotornis elisabeth). Ground-dwelling rodents have been found in their stomachs, indicating they will descend to feed or hunt at low levels. Captive specimens will take chameleons. A recent study around Watamu indicates that Eastern Green Mambas spend much time waiting in ambush, but they will also forage, searching in trees, investigating holes and birds’ nests. This snake has been found in huge concentrations within parts of its range (especially coastal Kenya and south-east Tanzania); concentrations of two to three snakes per hectare (i.e. 200–300 per square kilometre) have been noted.

Eastern Green Mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps.

Identification: A large, slender mamba of the Central African forests, with finely black-edged head scales. The head is long and the eye small, with a round pupil. The tail is long and thin, 20–25% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 15–17 rows at midbody; ventrals 202–227; subcaudals 94–113. Maximum size 2.64m (possibly more), large specimens usually males; average 1.5–2.2m; hatchling size unknown, but probably around 30cm. The colour is dull green above, mottled with black and yellow-green, pale green below, and yellow on the neck and throat. In some specimens (particularly juveniles) the black and yellow dorsal scales form narrow bands. The scales on the head and body are narrowly edged with black. Specimens from Uganda and Kenya (subspecies kaimosae) have a black tail; those from the centre and west of the range have a yellow tail and the tail scales are black-edged, giving a netting effect; in some Central African snakes the median dorsal scales are very dark, giving the impression of a black vertebral stripe.

Natural History: A fast-moving diurnal tree snake that climbs expertly but will descend to the ground. It is not aggressive; if threatened it tries to escape, but occasional specimens may flatten the neck to a narrow hood. It will reluctantly strike if provoked. However, some snake keepers have described this snake as very nervous, bad-tempered and willing to bite. It may shelter in hollow trees, cracks and tangles of vegetation. Male–male combat and mating were observed in Nigeria in the dry season, December to January; mating was observed in Kakamega Forest in Kenya in September. Females lay eggs; clutches of 5–15 have been recorded in Cameroon, laid in March, and 7–16 in Nigeria, laid mostly in April, May and June; females collected in June in Uganda showed no yolk deposition, but those collected in November contained developing eggs. The diet in Kenya is known to include rodents, birds and arboreal lizards. Studies in Nigeria found that the adults largely ate birds and some rodents, while juveniles also took cold-blooded prey; known prey items included toads, agamas, several bird species (including woodpeckers, cisticolas and doves), and squirrels, shrews and mice. Captive specimens readily take rodents but are nervous feeders. A mark–recapture study in Nigeria found this snake was sedentary, moving only a short distance between captures.

Jameson’s Mamba, Dendroaspis jamesoni.

Identification: A large, slender tree snake with a long head and a small eye. The pupil is round and the iris is yellow. The tail is long and thin, 20–23% of total length. The dorsal scales are smooth, and often startlingly huge; in 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 211–225 (higher counts often females); subcaudals 111–125. Maximum size 2.4m (possibly more), average 1.4–2.1m; hatchlings 35–45cm. The body is various shades of green above, or sometimes brown, yellow or blue-green. The huge, elongate dorsal scales may be black- or yellow-edged, giving the impression of oblique bars. The head scales are usually finely black-edged. The scales on the tail are usually strongly black-edged, giving a net effect. The underside is shades of green but usually pale; sometimes the ventrals are strongly black-edged, especially in juveniles.

Habitat and Distribution: Mostly in forest, thicket and woodland, but sometimes in forest–savanna mosaic, secondary forest, abandoned plantations or in riverine woodland in savanna. Usually lives at low altitude, but up to 1,400m in parts of its range. It is quite tolerant of agriculture in places, especially crops like cocoa, or even urban areas so long as parks, ornamental trees or riverine forest remain. Within forest it favours clearings. It is sporadically recorded from southern Benin, Togo and the hill country east of Lake Volta in Ghana, and found more or less continuously in the forests and fringing savanna from southern Ghana westwards to southern Senegal and the Gambia.

Medical Significance: A dangerous snake, with a potentially deadly neurotoxic venom that has a toxicity of 0.5mg/kg, and a wet venom yield averaging 1,200mg. However, being alert, tree-dwelling, diurnal and secretive, it rarely comes into contact with humans; it also avoids confrontation, and few bites are recorded. In general, mamba venoms cause a rapidly progressing, descending paralysis, which can appear soon after the bite and advance to fatal respiratory paralysis. A bite in Ivory Coast led to respiratory paralysis, which responded to antivenom. However, the zoologist George Cansdale noted only three bite cases in 14 years in Ghana; one received antivenom, but all recovered. A recent bite victim in Liberia suffered symptoms of local envenoming: considerable local pain, muscular pain in the head, neck, chest and limbs, tender skin, and he became unable to move his limbs. He received eight ampoules (80ml) of South African antivenom, which complicated the symptomology as he was asthmatic, but recovery was complete, although his heart rate was elevated for 14 days. This antivenom is not actually raised using venom from this snake. Bites from this snake are likely to need rapid hospital treatment with antivenom and respiratory support.

West African Green Mamba, Dendroaspis viridis.

Habitat and Distribution: In coastal bush, woodland, moist and dry savanna and occasionally semi-desert, from sea level to about 1,600m; very rarely above this altitude. It is most common in well-wooded savanna or riverine forest, especially where there are rocky hills and large trees. It is widespread in the southern third of Africa, northwards from eastern South Africa up to Kenya (where it is absent from the central highlands and much of the dry north) and southern Somalia. There are five apparently isolated populations elsewhere: one between South Sudan and southern Ethiopia; one centred on northern Ethiopia and western Eritrea; one in eastern Ethiopia and north-west Somalia; one between north-east Cameroon and Central African Republic; and one between Senegambia and southwestern Burkina Faso. It might be more widely distributed or even continuous across the West and Central African savanna, but rare. Snakes matching its description are reported from north-west Nigeria. An experienced snake collector in Burkina Faso was killed by a Black Mamba; he had never encountered one before and assumed it was harmless.

Black Mamba, Dendroaspis polylepis.

A genus of small (most are less than 70cm in length), ground-dwelling, burrowing venomous elapids (not to be confused with the harmless American garter snakes, genus Thamnophis). Ten species occur in sub-Saharan Africa, but in some areas they are very hard to tell apart; it has been jokingly said that there is only a single species of Elapsoidea but a lot of variation. In several reviews by eminent herpetologists, museum specimens have been reassigned from one species to another; the situation in parts of the Sahel and south-central Africa is particularly unclear. When identifying a garter snake, the locality will give valuable clues; bear this in mind when using the key.

Garter snakes have small, blunt heads and short tails. Nearly all have vivid dorsal bands when juvenile, but in most species the band either fades or darkens in the centre as they grow; the banding may serve to stop large garter snakes eating juveniles. Garter snakes have front fangs, but these are short and the snakes are usually reluctant to bite. When disturbed, they often inflate and flatten the body, throwing the bands into prominence, and also elevate the body (either the head and neck, or the middle) and hiss; sometimes they flatten and roll the tail into a vertical plane. They are active on the ground, especially during the rainy season, so are liable to be trodden on. However, they are of no real medical significance (although domestic dogs have been killed by garter snakes).

A curious suite of symptoms from garter snake bites includes pain (sometimes rapid and sometimes intense), nausea, vomiting, swelling, lymphangitis, stiffness of the bitten limb, nasal congestion, blurred vision and loss of consciousness; some of these may be due to something other than the actual venom. However, no fatalities have been recorded from African garter snake bites and no generic antivenom is available; a bite should be treated symptomatically.

Natural History: A burrowing snake, living in holes, it emerges on warm, wet nights to look for prey or a mate. Slow-moving and inoffensive, it doesn’t usually attempt to bite if picked up, but may hiss, inflate the body and jerk convulsively. Clutches of 4–8 large eggs have been recorded, in January and February in southern Tanzania; a hatchling was collected in June. The diet comprises other snakes (including its own species), lizards, small rodents and frogs. Zimbabwean snakes had eaten a rubber frog and a rain frog, both of which have poisonous skin secretions; Tanzanian specimens have been recorded eating snout-burrowers and squeakers.

Medical Significance: Low. The venom is not life-threatening, and neurological symptoms seem to be absent from reported cases. One recorded bite caused swelling of the bitten hand, immediate pain and transient nasal congestion; another showed pain and nasal congestion but no swelling.

Boulenger’s Garter Snake, Elapsoidea boulengeri.

Identification: A small, glossy snake with a short head that is slightly broader than the neck, and eyes that are set well forward, with round pupils. The body is cylindrical and the tail very short, 6–7% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 165–180; subcaudals 22–23 in males, 18 in the only known female. Maximum size 76.6cm, average 40–70cm; hatchlings 12–14cm. This species is known solely from three preserved specimens and a sight record; in preservative it is brown above and white below, without any trace of banding; the sight record was uniform blackish brown.

Habitat and Distribution: Recorded from Jilib and Afmadow, and a specimen was photographed near Kismayu, in the dry low-altitude savanna of southern Somalia.

Medical Significance: Its tiny range (at present) and presumably typical garter snake venom indicate it is of no real medical significance, although within its range many people don’t have closed shoes and are liable to tread on it at night in the rainy season.

Broadley’s Garter Snake, Elapsoidea broadleyi.

Identification: A small, glossy snake, known only from two specimens collected in Afgooye (originally Afgoi), near Mogadishu, Somalia, in the late 1970s. The head is short, slightly broader than the neck, and the eyes are set well forward, with round pupils. The body is cylindrical and the tail very short, 7–8% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 136–141; subcaudals 17–21. The two known specimens were 18cm and 41.5cm in total length. The adult was dark greyish brown, with the front of the head, the upper lips and the throat off-white with brownish spots; the belly was dark grey. The juvenile was black above and the head and throat were off-white above, with scattered tiny brown dots; the belly was light grey. Unusually, neither individual was banded.

Habitat and Distribution: Taken in an area of sandy soil, in dry open woodland typical of consolidated coastal dunes, at Afgooye, in the valley of the Shebelle River, in the dry low-altitude savanna of southern Somalia.

Medical Significance: Its tiny range (at present) and presumably typical garter snake venom indicate it is of no real medical significance, although within its range many people don’t have closed shoes and are liable to tread on it at night in the rainy season.

Southern Somali Garter Snake, Elapsoidea chelazziorum.

Identification: A small, glossy snake, with equally spaced bands, of the savannas of south-central Africa. The head is short and slightly distinct from the neck. The scales are smooth; in 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 131–156; subcaudals 15–26. Maximum size about 62cm, average 30–50cm; hatchling size unknown. Juveniles are black with 14–28 broad, pale (white or grey-white) cross-bands; the bands are the same width as the spaces between. The pale bands darken in the centre as the snake grows, and usually disappear, so that adults appear grey or black. However, some adults are grey with white-edged black bands, and others retain a series of thin white bands, where the white-edged scales that marked the outer edges of the bands are all that remain of the bands.

Habitat and Distribution: Woodland, moist and dry savanna and forest–savanna mosaic, from sea level to 1,500m or slightly higher. It occurs from central DR Congo south into the miombo woodland of northern Angola, central Zambia and Zimbabwe, just getting into south-west Tanzania, and there is an isolated record from Gorongosa, Mozambique.

Medical Significance: A snake with a large range that lives in a well-populated area with lots of agriculture, but no bite cases are documented. No antivenom is available and it should not be necessary; treat symptomatically.

Günther’s Garter Snake, Elapsoidea guentheri.

Identification: A small, glossy snake with a short head, fairly large eyes and round pupils. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly short, 6–9% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 139–151; subcaudals 13–25 (20 or more in males). Maximum size about 56cm, average 25–40cm; hatchling size unknown, but probably about 12cm. Young specimens have 8–19 pale brown or reddish-brown bands on a black body; the bands are about half as wide as the black spaces between. The belly is brownish yellow or dull orange. As the snake grows, the bands darken in the centre, but the scales at the outer edges of the bands remain pale, so that adults appear to be black with a series of fine white double rings along the body; occasional specimens lose all their markings.

Habitat and Distribution: In moist and dry savanna, woodland and forest–savanna mosaic, between 300m and over 1,000m. It occurs in northern Cameroon and southern Chad, eastwards to the extreme south of Sudan, southwards through most of South Sudan to Nimule, on the border with Uganda, and in north-east DR Congo.

Medical Significance: A snake with a large range that lives in a well-populated area with lots of agriculture, but no bite cases are documented. No antivenom is available and it should not be necessary; treat symptomatically.

Central African Garter Snake, Elapsoidea laticincta.

Natural History: Terrestrial and fairly slow-moving. It is nocturnal, emerging at dusk; individuals hide in holes or under ground cover during the day. It is believed to spend much of its active time in holes, but will prowl on the surface at night, especially on damp nights after rain, which acts as an activity trigger. A number were found dead on the road just south of Nairobi in December following a heavy, unseasonable storm the previous night. It may emerge in the day; a Nairobi specimen was crawling through the grass in the afternoon, following a rainstorm. This species is inoffensive; many specimens will not attempt to bite when handled gently, but if molested may flatten and inflate the body, showing the bands prominently, and may lift the front half of the body off the ground and jerk from side to side. If restrained it may try to bite. It lays 2–6 eggs; a Ugandan female was gravid in September; hatchlings were collected in Nairobi in April, May and July. The diet includes small snakes, lizards, frogs, reptile eggs and rodents; a beetle larva and a centipede have also been recorded. A captive specimen bitten by a large Black-necked Spitting Cobra (Naja nigricollis) survived despite internal bleeding.

Medical Significance: A snake with a large range that lives in a well-populated area with lots of agriculture, so liable to be trodden on. A bite in Nairobi caused local pain, which became intense when the bitten limb was moved, as well as swelling and pain in the lymph nodes; another bite was described as causing intense local tingling pain.

East African Garter Snake, Elapsoidea loveridgei.

Identification: A small, glossy snake with a short, blunt head, and eyes that are set well forward, with a yellow iris and round pupils. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, 5–7% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 13 rows at midbody; 151–169 ventrals; 13–24 paired subcaudals (males usually more than 18, females fewer than 18). Maximum size about 60cm, average 30–50cm; hatchling size unknown. Juveniles are beautiful, with an orange head and the first three or four body bands orange with black in between; the rest of the bands are grey with white edging. There is a total of 18–24 bands on the body and 2–3 on the tail; the bands are the same width as the spaces between. The pale bands darken as the snake grows, so that adults simply show a series of thin white bands, where the white-edged scales that marked their outer edges are all that remain; in some individuals the bands seem to disappear. However, if a uniformly dark adult is molested, it inflates the body, exposing the concealed white scale tips.

Natural History: Poorly known. It is terrestrial, slow-moving and burrowing, living and hunting in holes, soft soil and leaf litter, and taking shelter in vegetation, rotten logs and under rocks, etc. It is sometimes active in the day following storms, but mostly hunts at night, emerging at dusk, especially on damp nights after rain; it is sometimes active in the dry season. This snake is inoffensive and gentle, but if molested it hisses, flattens the body and lashes about, sometimes raising coils off the ground. It is likely to bite only if restrained forcibly. Females lay 2–5 eggs, roughly 10 × 40mm; females with eggs in their oviducts have been captured mostly between October and December. This species eats mostly, or perhaps exclusively, caecilians (legless, worm-like amphibians).

Medical Significance: Nothing is known of its venom. Its tiny range and presumably typical garter snake venom indicate it is of no real medical significance, although within its range many people don’t have closed shoes and are liable to tread on it at night in the rainy season.

Usambara Garter Snake, Elapsoidea nigra.

Habitat and Distribution: In moist and dry savanna, even semi-desert, and enters forest clearings and forest fringes in Central Africa. In south-central Africa it is mostly in savanna and woodland, but is also known from grassland. It is most common at low altitude, between sea level and 1,800m. The northern subspecies occurs across the West African savanna from Senegal and extreme southern Mauritania east to Central African Republic and South Sudan, and south into northern Republic of the Congo, DR Congo and Gabon; the southern form is in Angola, Namibia, northern Botswana and western Zambia. There are isolated records from eastern DR Congo and northern Republic of the Congo.

Natural History: Terrestrial and fairly slow-moving. This species is nocturnal, emerging at dusk. It hides in holes or under ground cover during the day, and is believed to spend much of its active time crawling about in holes, but will prowl on the surface at night, especially on damp nights after rain, and is sometimes active in the dry season. It is totally inoffensive, and many specimens will let themselves be handled freely, making no attempt to bite. However, if teased or molested it may flatten and inflate the body, showing the bands prominently, and may lift the front half of the body off the ground and jerk from side to side. It is likely to bite only if restrained. Females lay 2–8 eggs. In West Africa juveniles appear in January, indicating dry season hatching. The diet includes small snakes (it has been recorded eating burrowing asps, Atractaspis, in West Africa), smooth-bodied and burrowing lizards, worm lizards (amphisbaenids) and reptile eggs; it is also known to take frogs, including species with poisonous skin secretions, and termites. It probably also eats rodents.

Medical Significance: A snake with a large range that lives in a well-populated area with lots of agriculture, but no bite cases are documented. No antivenom is available and it should not be necessary; treat symptomatically.

Half-banded Garter Snake, Elapsoidea semiannulata.

Habitat and Distribution: Endemic to southern Africa. This species has radiated to occupy a wide range of habitats, from coastal woodland and dune thicket to high-altitude grassland and the slopes of the Drakensberg Mountains, moist and dry savanna, semi-desert and rocky hill country, from sea level to 1,600m. The different subspecies may be usefully identified by their locality. Sundevall’s Garter Snake occurs in southern and western Kwazulu-Natal, south-west Eswatini (Swaziland), south-east Mpumalanga and possibly the extreme Eastern Cape. The Highveld Garter Snake occurs from the west of the Northern Cape through the Free State to northern North West Province, most of Gauteng, and northern Mpumalanga and southern Limpopo. The Kalahari Garter Snake occurs in central and western Botswana and north-central Namibia. The Long-tailed Garter Snake is found in northern Limpopo, south-west Zimbabwe and southern Mozambique. De Coster’s Garter Snake occurs in north-west Eswatini, extreme southern Mozambique and northern Kwazulu-Natal.

Natural History: A fairly slow-moving, nocturnal terrestrial snake. It hides in holes, under ground cover, in termitaria or in logs during the day, and is believed to spend much of its active time crawling about in holes, but will prowl on the surface at night, especially on damp nights after rain. It is sometimes active in the dry season. This species is totally inoffensive, and many specimens will let themselves be handled freely, making no attempt to bite. However, if teased or molested it may flatten and inflate the body, showing the bands prominently, and may lift the front half of the body off the ground and jerk from side to side. It is likely to bite only if restrained. Clutches of up to 10 eggs have been recorded, roughly 20 × 10mm. Its prey includes snakes, lizards and amphibians. One Long-tailed Garter Snake had eaten a golden mole; Sundevall’s Garter Snake appears to eat mainly lizard eggs, but occasionally takes amphibians.

Sundavell’s Garter Snake, Elapsoidea sundevalli sundevalli.

Kalahari Garter Snake, Elapsoidea sundevalli fitzsimonsi.

Highveld Garter Snake, Elapsoidea sundevalli media.

Long-tailed Garter Snake, Elapsoidea sundevalli longicauda.

De Coster’s Garter Snake, Elapsoidea sundevalli decosteri.

Identification: A small, glossy snake, described in 1999 from Senegal and nearby areas in West Africa. The head is short, slightly broader than the neck, and the eyes set well forward, with round pupils. The body is cylindrical and the tail very short. The scales are smooth; in 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 155–170; subcaudals 18–27. Maximum size about 68cm, average 25–60cm; hatchling size unknown, but probably around 15cm. The colour is black, with or without white or grey-white cross-bars or bands. Juveniles are strongly banded black and white. This species differs from the northern subspecies of the Half-Banded Garter Snake (Elapsoidea semiannulata moebiusi) in that the ventral colouration is always grey-black, and from other garter snakes in possessing six upper labials; all the rest have seven.

Habitat and Distribution: In moist and dry savanna, at low altitude. It is known from Dakar in Senegal, eastern Senegal and extreme southern Mauritania, and is probably also in north-west Guinea.

Natural History: Unknown. It is presumably similar to other garter snakes (i.e. lives on the ground or in holes, is nocturnal and lays eggs). The diet is known to include snakes, lizards and centipedes.

Medical Significance: Its small range (at present) and presumably typical garter snake venom indicate it is of no real medical significance, although within its range many people don’t have closed shoes and are liable to tread on it at night in the rainy season.

Trape’s Garter Snake, Elapsoidea trapei.

Famous for their ability to spread a hood, and worshipped and feared in the ancient kingdoms of Egypt, the true cobras are a genus of over 30 species of highly venomous and medically significant snakes, some very large, found in Africa and Asia. For a long time, only four species were known from Africa: the Cape Cobra (Naja nivea), Black-necked Spitting Cobra (N. nigricollis), Egyptian Cobra (N. haje) and Forest Cobra (N. melanoleuca). Two water cobras (Boulengerina) and a Burrowing Cobra (Paranaja) were also known. However, ongoing taxonomic work, greatly aided by analysis of their DNA, has dramatically split the genus. As well as showing that Boulengerina and Paranaja belong in Naja, there are now seven species of spitting cobra, and the Egyptian Cobra has been split into five species (four in Africa) and the Forest Cobra into five; only the Cape Cobra has not been broken up. More splits may be on the cards.

The Egyptian Cobra was long regarded as a single species, but taxonomic work has revealed that there are five species in the group, with four in Africa: the ‘typical’ Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje), the Snouted Cobra (N. annulifera), Anchieta’s Cobra (N. anchietae) and, most recently, the Senegal Cobra (N. senegalensis). Extralimitally, an Arabian form is known, the Arabian Cobra (N. arabica). Whether the two southern African forms are truly two separate species or merely a cline is uncertain; intermediates exist and the exact identity of some Zambian specimens is debated.

Habitat and Distribution: Mostly in semi-desert, moist and dry savanna, woodland (never forest), grassland and agricultural lands. Around the Sahara it is not in true desert but instead in vegetated wadis, agriculture, etc. In some areas (e.g. the Ethiopian Rift Valley) it is common in degraded badlands. It is found from sea level to around 1,800m. This species occurs from Western Sahara eastwards across North Africa (although it is absent from the north Moroccan and Algerian coasts, and records are lacking for parts of Algeria) to Egypt, and southwards down the Nile. It then occurs westwards across the Sahel and savanna to at least Mali (records from further west are probably the Senegal Cobra, Naja senegalensis). Its range extends south into northern Uganda, south-central Kenya and northern Tanzania, and also into Eritrea, northern Somalia and the central Ethiopian Rift Valley. It is often uncommon, or curiously absent, from pockets in its range. It may have been displaced from some areas by more successful snakes, or it might be present and simply overlooked; in other restricted areas it can be surprisingly common.

Medical Significance: This is a highly dangerous snake. It is large, and thus delivers a large dose of potent neurotoxic venom if it bites; it will rear up if molested and may cause a bite high up on the body. It is often found in agricultural areas; it raids domestic fowl runs, and may come around habitation looking for water or food. If it feels threatened it will try to bite from a short rush. Bites are reported from the Nile Valley and parts of the West African Sahel and savanna, although there are relatively few documented cases. In West Africa, this is a species favoured by snake charmers, as these snakes are alert and willing to remain reared up for a while; consequently the charmers (and members of their audiences) are often bitten. Recent work indicates that East African examples of this snake have an extremely toxic venom. Bites may cause some local swelling, but necrosis does not develop. Classic neurotoxic symptoms appear as early as 30 minutes after the bite and can evolve to the point of fatal respiratory paralysis within 2–16 hours.The neurotoxic venom causes progressive descending paralysis, starting with ptosis and paralysis of the neck and head muscles, and proceeding to paralysis of the lungs. A bite is a medical emergency and will probably need treatment with a respirator and antivenom in a well-equipped hospital. A bite from this snake is one situation where pressure bandaging, immobilisation therapy and artificial respiration may be of benefit as the victim is transported to hospital.

Taxonomic Notes: Some authorities regarded the Moroccan and Western Saharan populations of this snake as a separate subspecies, or even species, Naja (haje) legionis, but molecular analysis indicates that they cluster within the typical species, Naja haje.

Egyptian Cobra, Naja haje.

Habitat and Distribution: In the Guinea and Sudan savanna of West Africa, between sea level and 600m. Local information indicates that in some areas it is often found near water sources; one was caught in a fisherman’s net. It occurs from south-western Niger, eastern Nigeria and northern Benin westwards to Senegal.

Natural History: Presumably similar to the Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje); that is, terrestrial, quick-moving, active by day and night, and shelters in holes, rock fissures, hollow trees, etc. It presumably lays eggs. Known prey items include the Desert Toad (Sclerophrys xeros) and the Western Beaked Snake (Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus); it probably takes a wide range of small vertebrates.

Senegal Cobra, Naja senegalensis.

Identification: A large brown, grey or banded cobra of the savannas of south-east Africa. The head is broad and distinct from the neck, the eye is fairly large with a round pupil, and a subocular scale separates the eye from the upper labials. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly long, 14–18% of total length (usually longer in males). The scales are smooth; in 19 (very occasionally 21) rows at midbody; ventrals 175–208; subcaudals 50–67. Maximum size about 2.5m (possibly larger; anecdotal reports of 3m specimens exist), average 1.3–1.8m; hatchlings probably 22–34cm. The colour is usually shades of brown, rufous-brown, grey, tan or sometimes black. A banded morph, with brown and yellow bands, occurs throughout its range; the juveniles are unbanded but the adults develop bands at a length of 60cm or so. The underside is dull yellow, mottled or barred with dirty brown to a greater or larger extent.

Habitat and Distribution: A snake of dry and moist savanna and woodland (‘bushveld’), between sea level and 1,600m. It occurs from central Zambia south through most of Zimbabwe, southern Malawi and the southern half of Mozambique to eastern Botswana and northern South Africa, as far south as parts of coastal Kwazulu-Natal. There are isolated northern records from Mpika in Zambia, Makuzi Lodge and Likoma Island in Malawi, and Livingstone in southern Zambia.

Medical Significance: A dangerous snake; widespread in agricultural country, active by night and day and on the ground, will bite if inadvertently cornered, and rears up, so may deliver a bite high on the body. The neurotoxic venom causes progressive descending paralysis, starting with ptosis and paralysis of the neck and head muscles, and proceeding to paralysis of the respiratory muscles. A bite is a medical emergency and will probably need treatment with a respirator and antivenom in a well-equipped hospital. A bite from this snake is one situation where pressure pad immobilisation and artificial respiration may be life-saving as the victim is transported to hospital.

Taxonomic Notes: A member of the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) complex, originally seen as a subspecies of that snake, but elevated to full species level by Don Broadley in 1995.

Snouted Cobra, Naja annulifera.

Habitat and Distribution: Semi-desert, dry and moist savanna and woodland, from sea level to about 1,600m, or possibly higher. It occurs from the northern Kalahari in Botswana and central Namibia, north into most of Angola and southwest Zambia. There are isolated records from the Lake Bangweulu area in Zambia and southern Haut-Katanga in DR Congo.

Natural History: Similar to the previous species. A large terrestrial snake (although it will climb rocks), active by day and night – often by day in wild regions and by night in inhabited areas. Juveniles seem to be more diurnal than adults. It is crepuscular at some times of the year. It tends to have a permanent home in termite mounds, holes or rock fissures, where it may live for years if undisturbed. In the cooler months it often basks near its home, especially in the morning. It tends to be more common in well-wooded areas and near water sources, but will venture into arid country. It is relatively quick-moving and, although not aggressive, if confronted and unable to escape it will rear up fairly high and spread a broad hood; if further antagonised it may hiss loudly and rush forward to bite. Occasional individuals may sham (feign) death. This species is reported as laying up to 60 eggs (roughly 30 × 50mm), in early summer in southern Africa. The diet is mostly small vertebrates, including toads, birds, rodents and other snakes. It often raids chicken runs and can be a nuisance to poultry farmers.

Taxonomic Notes: A member of the Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) complex, originally seen as a subspecies of that snake, then as a subspecies of the Snouted Cobra (Naja annulifera); it was elevated to full species level in 2004.

Anchieta’s Cobra, Naja anchietae.

Identification: An attractive, alert cobra, often yellow or orange, endemic to the dry country of southwestern Africa. It has a broad head and medium-sized eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail is 14–17% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 19–21 rows at midbody; ventrals 193–227; subcaudals 50–68. The cloacal scale is undivided. Maximum size recorded 2.3m (an unusually large Western Cape specimen), average 1.2–1.5m; hatchlings 25–40cm. Several distinct colour forms exist: one is bright yellow above, sometimes orange or reddish; another is warm brown, often speckled with yellow; a third is pale brown or yellow-brown, heavily speckled both above and below with black; and a fourth is uniform shiny black. Other colour forms have also been described. Juveniles are yellow or reddish yellow, and usually have a broad black or brown neck band that fades with age.

Habitat and Distribution: Predominantly a snake of dry country, and the only cobra in much of South Africa. It occupies a variety of habitats, from sea level to highlands at 2,500m; it occurs in the fynbos and savanna (bushveld) of the Cape provinces, the high grasslands of the Free State, the semi-desert of the Kalahari in Botswana and the Karoo in the Cape, and the dry rocky hills and desert of Namibia. It is often found along dry riverbeds (dongas). Endemic to southern Africa, it occurs in extreme south-western Lesotho, throughout most of the western side of South Africa, north into the Kalahari in south-west and south-central Botswana, and north-west into north-western Namibia.

Medical Significance: Often relatively common in parts of its range and active by day in farming areas, and so a major snakebite hazard in southern Africa, both to humans and stock. In the Cape provinces this snake accounts for most human snakebite fatalities, due to the rapid onset of paralysis. It has a very potent neurotoxic venom, causing progressive descending paralysis, starting with ptosis and paralysis of the neck and head muscles, and proceeding to paralysis of the lungs. A bite is a medical emergency and will probably need treatment with a respirator and antivenom in a well-equipped hospital. A bite from this snake is one situation where pressure pad immobilisation and artificial respiration may be life-saving as the victim is transported to hospital. Antivenom is available.

Cape Cobra, Naja nivea.

Natural History: Little known. It is almost certainly terrestrial, and, despite the common name, burrowing behaviour is not yet reported. It moves fairly quickly and is probably diurnal, like most forest elapids. It presumably hides in holes, under ground cover or among leaf litter when inactive. A captive DR Congo specimen from South Kivu constantly tried to hide under debris in its cage, and pushed its snout into the earth. It was not aggressive and tried to bite only if restrained. A captive specimen maintained for a number of years in the UK was always calm and never tried to bite. When threatened, the DR Congo snake flattened itself to almost double its width, and raised its head in a cobra-like fashion, but without spreading a hood. It would take no prey other than small rodents; likewise, the UK captive ate only dead mice. This species might take amphibians. It presumably lays eggs, although no details are known.

Medical Significance: Unlikely to pose a threat to humans, being a small, secretive and apparently very rare species, although those who work in the forest are at risk. The venom is produced in very small amounts. However, a 12g mouse died one and a half minutes after being bitten on the flank by one of these snakes, and analysis confirms that the venom contains neurotoxins and cardiotoxins. No antivenom is available; bites should be treated symptomatically.

Burrowing Cobra, Naja multifasciata.

Habitat and Distribution: Associated with lakes and rivers, in forest and well-wooded savanna, between sea level and 1,200m. It is usually found where there is enough waterside cover to conceal a large snake, but will venture out onto open beaches and sand bars. It occurs from Lake Tanganyika westwards across Central Africa to Gabon and the mouth of the Congo River, south to northern Angola, and north to south-western Central African Republic and southern Cameroon.

Medical Significance: A large snake, with a potent neurotoxic venom (the lethal dose is very low compared to that of other elapids), so theoretically a risk to inhabitants of Central Africa, especially fishermen. However, there seem to be no documented bites, possibly because, being both nervous and largely tied to water where it hunts fish, this snake rarely comes into confrontational contact with humans. No specific antivenom is available; however, South African polyvalent antivenom is shown to be effective in neutralising the venom.

Banded Water Cobra, Naja annulata.

Identification: A fairly large, semi-aquatic cobra of the lower Congo River. The head is short and subtriangular, and the eye small and set forward, with a small round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail is fairly long, 18–20% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 17 rows at midbody; ventrals 206–221; cloacal scale entire; paired subcaudals 67–73. Maximum size about 1.4m, average probably 80–120cm; hatchlings around 30cm. The colour is a rich brownish maroon above; some specimens have low-contrast blotches or bars, and some are very dark. The tail is black. On the neck are two to six yellow or cream rings, clearly visible on the underside of the hood. The lips and other head scales may have lightish blotches, and the upper labials are finely black-edged. The underside is brown, and the ventrals are often lightly edged yellow.

Natural History: Behaviour little known. This snake is semi-aquatic, spending a lot of time in water, and moves quite quickly. It might be nocturnal or diurnal. It presumably hides in riverside holes, root clusters and holes of waterside trees, etc.; juveniles have been taken under rocks on the floodplains of the lower Congo River, and in and around small ponds with rocky banks. It swims well, and if encountered in water swims away; if cornered on land it will spread a narrow hood. It lays eggs and probably eats amphibians and/or fish. Little else is known. This species was originally placed in the genus Limnonaja, then Boulengerina.

Medical Significance: A fairly large snake, with a potent neurotoxic venom (the lethal dose is low compared to that of other elapids), so theoretically a risk to inhabitants of the lower Congo River, especially fishermen. However, there seem to be few documented bites, possibly because, being both nervous and largely tied to water where it hunts fish, this snake rarely comes into confrontational contact with humans. No specific antivenom is available; however, South African polyvalent antivenom is shown to be effective in neutralising the venom. One victim experienced only a headache following a bite.

Congo Water Cobra, Naja christyi.

Regarded for a long time as a single well-defined species, but quite variable in colour, this large snake has now been split, mainly on the basis of DNA, into five species. This split largely makes zoogeographic sense, and indicates separate lineages. The São Tomé Forest Cobra (Naja peroescobari) is confined to that island, while the West African Forest Cobra (N. guineensis) occurs in the forests of West Africa, west of the Dahomey Gap. The Banded Forest Cobra (N. savannula) occurs in the savannas of West Africa. However, there are problems in identifying (at least visually) some specimens of the Eastern Forest Cobra (N. subfulva) and the Central African Forest Cobra (N. melanoleuca). The ranges of these two snakes overlap widely in the Albertine Rift, parts of Central Africa, and in and around Cameroon, DR Congo and the Republic of the Congo. Even the authors of the paper that split the group struggled to allocate some specimens from these areas and state that these can be differentiated only using DNA; no key is provided in their paper.

These are medically important snakes, although bites seem to be rare. They have a huge range (most of forested and wooded tropical Africa, extending into savanna in places). They are secretive, and often occur in urban and agricultural areas; they may be active by day and by night on the ground. They are quick to rear up if molested, if they perceive themselves to be in danger they will bite, and their height means a bite may be delivered high on the body. They have a potent neurotoxic venom, causing a rapid descending paralysis and respiratory depression, leading to death from suffocation within 2–16 hours of the bite. Initial symptoms include ptosis, double vision, and inability to open the mouth, clench the jaw, protrude the tongue or swallow. These cobras are large and a bite from one is a medical emergency, needing immediate hospitalisation. However, antivenom is available, and surprisingly few bites are documented; these alert species are quick to avoid confrontation. The symptomology of forest cobra bites seems to be similar for all five species, indicating that whatever else may have changed, the venom remains much the same.

Habitat and Distribution: Forest, woodland, coastal thicket, moist savanna and grassland, from sea level to over 2,500m. It occurs northwards from northeastern South Africa (from Durban in Kwazulu-Natal and Kruger National Park), through parts of Mozambique, most of Malawi, northern and eastern Zambia and southern DR Congo, west to southern Gabon. It is also found in coastal Tanzania and Kenya, western Kenya, most of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and the watershed west of the Albertine Rift Valley in DR Congo, then across the north of the forest to south-western Chad and Cameroon; there are some old records from the Niger Delta. Records are lacking from north-east DR Congo. Isolated populations are known from the Udzungwa Mountains and the Crater Highlands in Tanzania, the forests of south-eastern Mount Kenya, the Nyambene Hills and parts of Laikipia in Kenya, the forests of south-west Ethiopia, and the Imatong Mountains and Torit in South Sudan.

Medical Significance: This is a dangerous snake; it is wide-ranging, secretive, large and active on the ground, often in rural areas. It will bite if cornered. It has a neurotoxic venom that causes a progressive paralysis, which can be rapid; fatalities are recorded. Antivenom is available. A bite must be rapidly hospitalised and treated with antivenom and respiratory support in hospital. As with mambas (Dendroaspis), a bite from this snake is one situation where pressure bandaging, immobilisation therapy and artificial respiration may be of benefit while the victim is being transported to hospital.

Eastern Forest Cobra, Naja subfulva.

Habitat and Distribution: Forest and woodland, coastal thicket, moist savanna and grassland, from sea level to over 2,000m. It occurs northwards from north-west Angola through DR Congo and Gabon, north and west to southern Central African Republic, southern Cameroon, Nigeria and extreme southern Togo, and east to western Rwanda, Burundi and south-west Uganda. It might occur in Ghana; west of there it is replaced by the West African Forest Cobra (Naja guineensis).

Medical Significance: As for the previous species; a dangerous snake with a rapidly acting neurotoxic venom.

Central African Forest Cobra, Naja melanoleuca.

Identification: A large, banded black and yellow cobra of the West African savanna. It has a large head and a large, dark eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly long and thin, 15–20% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 19 rows at midbody; ventrals 211–226; subcaudals 67–73. Maximum size about 2.3m (possibly larger), average 1.3–2m; hatchling size unknown, but probably around 30cm. The colour is distinctive; the front half of the body is banded black and yellow. The yellow bands (rarely more than five) are usually slightly narrower than the black bands, sometimes with a fine black band in the centre of the yellow; sometimes the yellow bands are black-speckled. The ventral surface is vivid yellow anteriorly, with black cross-bars on the neck, gradually darkening towards the tail.

Natural History: As for the Eastern Forest Cobra (Naja subfulva); that is, terrestrial but also climbs, fast-moving, swims well, active by day and night, lays eggs, and eats a wide range of vertebrate prey. A 2m specimen from Wa, north-west Ghana, had eaten an African Giant Shrew (Crocidura olivieri), a noxious-smelling mammal.

Medical Significance: Few bite cases are recorded, but, as for the previous species, this is a dangerous snake with a rapidly acting neurotoxic venom.

Banded Forest Cobra, Naja savannula.

Identification: A large black cobra of the West African forest. It has a large head and a large, dark eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly long and thin, 15–20% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 17–19 rows at midbody; ventrals 203–221; subcaudals 60–70. A specimen of 2.6m from Tafo, Ghana, appears to be the largest measured; average size 1.4–2.2m; hatchlings 25–40cm. The colour is usually black or brownish black above, sometimes with cross-bars (or pairs of cross-bars) of speckled white scales; juveniles may be entirely speckled. The underside is largely black with white or cream cross-bars on the throat, which may become suffused with black in large adults. Sometimes there is an ocellate mark on the neck. The lips are cream, with black edging to the scales; in large adults the lips may become entirely black. Melanistic (all-black) specimens are known.

Natural History: As for other forest cobras; that is, terrestrial but also climbs, fast-moving, swims well, active by day and night, lays eggs, and eats a wide range of vertebrate prey.

Medical Significance: As for the previous species; a dangerous snake with a rapidly acting neurotoxic venom. A child in Ghana died 20 minutes after a bite from one of these snakes.

West African Forest Cobra, Naja guineensis.

Identification: A large, black cobra from São Tomé Island. It has a large head and a large, dark eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly long and thin, 15–20% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 19–21 rows at midbody; ventrals 204–215; subcaudals 52–70. Maximum size 2.6m, average probably 1.4–2.2m; hatchling size unknown, but probably 25–40cm. The colour is uniform glossy black above. The chin, throat and neck are white or cream, with lateral black blotching and irregular cross-bars, but any white on the neck is usually (but not always) confined to the first 22 ventral scales. The lips are cream, with black edging to the scales.

Habitat and Distribution: A species known only from the volcanic São Tomé Island, in the Gulf of Guinea west of Gabon. It occurs in forested areas between sea level and 1,154m, and is apparently absent from the drier north-east side of the island.

Natural History: As for other forest cobras; that is, terrestrial but also climbs, fast-moving, swims well, active by day and night and lays eggs. It is most often seen basking on roads during the daytime, and is said to prefer shaded, moist habitats. Known prey animals include a weasel and a Black Rat (Rattus rattus), but it probably takes a range of vertebrates, like other members of the group.

São Tomé Forest Cobra, Naja peroescobari.

A group of elapid snakes able to squirt venom from their fangs, to a distance of 2m or 3m; if the venom enters the eyes it is intensely painful. The snakes also bite. Unusually, the use of venom for spitting is the only situation where snake venoms have a defensive purpose, deterring a potential predator. Spitting probably evolved for defence against predatory birds such as ground hornbills and Secretary Birds (Sagittarius serpentarius), since spitting cobras appear in the fossil record at least 15 million years ago, before humans.

For a long time, all African spitting cobras were believed to be a single, fairly variable species, and the various new taxa that were found were regarded as subspecies or varieties from 1843 until 1968, when Don Broadley elevated the Mozambique Spitting Cobra (Naja mossambica) to full species status. More splits followed; at least seven species are now recognised. Spitting cobras show wide variation (within the constraints of being true cobras); some are huge, 2.5m or more, and others a maximum of 1m or so. However, they form a monophyletic clade; they have a single common ancestor that lived about 15 million years ago. We have provided separate entries for the two subspecies of the South-western Black Spitting Cobra (N. nigricincta) as they look very different, although intergrades exist.

Identification: A large spitting cobra, widespread in the savannas of tropical Africa. It has a broad head, a cylindrical body and smooth scales; the tail is 15–20% of total length. Midbody scale count is 17–23; ventrals 175–212; subcaudals 50–70. Maximum size seems to vary; over most of Africa 1.8m is about as large as it gets, averaging 1.2–1.5m; hatchlings 33–36cm. However, savanna snakes from immediately west of the Gregory Rift Valley in Kenya and Tanzania, and in north-east Tanzania, seem to get much larger, reaching 2.3m or even more. The colour is variable. In most of Africa adults are black (sometimes grey or sometimes dark brown), and juveniles are grey. The upper neck is black above, and the throat is barred black and either red, orange or pink (or occasionally yellow, pale grey or white). In highland Kenya, adults may be copper-coloured, pinky-grey, rufous or rufous-brown, but most have red and black throat bars. A large all-black (above and below) colour form occurs west of the central Gregory Rift Valley in Kenya and in north-west Tanzania. Some individuals of this form have white blotching on the underside, and some juveniles have red throats.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but it climbs readily and will even attempt to escape up trees or up into rocks. It is quick-moving and alert. Large adults are mostly active at night, but will also hunt or bask during the day, especially in uninhabited areas. Juveniles are often active during the day. When not active, this snake takes cover in termitaria, holes, hollow trees, old logs or brush piles, etc. When threatened, it rears and spreads a hood and will spit if further molested, but may also spit without actually spreading a hood. Large adults can spit 3m or more. They tend to stand their ground when threatened, rather than rush forward as the forest and Egyptian cobras may do. Male–male combat has been observed, with the snakes intertwined and neck-wrestling. Females lay 5–20 eggs, roughly 25 × 40mm, often in termitaria; the larger the female, the more eggs she lays. Hatchlings have been collected in Nairobi in April and May, and in May and June in West Africa. This species eats a wide variety of food, including amphibians, various mammals, lizards, snakes and even fish; it will raid chicken runs and will take eggs and chicks. It is quick to exploit suitable habitats, aided by its secretive nocturnal habits. In Nigeria it has been observed moving into what were previously forested areas, and in urbanised areas the disappearance of vipers has allowed this snake to become common. In Kenya it is known to exploit urban areas; in the satellite suburbs around Athi River it has displaced the Egyptian Cobra (Naja haje), while on the southern side of Nairobi, in areas where both this snake and the Puff Adder (Bitis arietans) were common, the Puff Adders are long gone but the spitting cobras persist.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but it climbs well and often attempts to escape up trees. It is active by day and night, adults usually by night and juveniles particularly by day. Individuals shelter in holes, under ground cover or in rock fissures, tree cracks and termite mounds. When threatened it will try to escape, but if cornered it will rear up and spread a broad hood, and will spit venom to 2m or more. It may also bite. Between 10 and 24 eggs are laid. This snake feeds on small vertebrates, including mammals, frogs, lizards and other snakes, including its own kind. It is often relatively common; around Windhoek it was the second most common species relocated.

Identification: A black spitting cobra of dry southern Namibia and western South Africa. It has a fairly large head and a large, dark eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly long and thin, 15–20% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 21 rows at midbody; ventrals 221–228; subcaudals 65–74. Maximum size about 1.8m, average 0.9–1.4m; hatchlings 35–38cm. Adults are shiny black above and below, and juveniles purply-grey or grey with a black throat, darkening when around 70–80cm in length. North into Namibia, the bands appear.

Habitat and Distribution: Lives in rocky desert, hills, rocky outcrops and semi-desert, extending south into the shrublands and heathlands (fynbos) of Northern Cape and Western Cape, between sea level and 1,000m. It occurs west from Kimberley in South Africa, and north from Citrusdal up into Namibia, where it meets and intergrades with the Zebra Cobra (Naja nigricincta nigricincta) between 22°S and 25°S.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but it climbs well and often attempts to escape up trees. It is active by day and night, adults usually by night and juveniles particularly by day. Individuals shelter in holes, under ground cover or in rock fissures, tree cracks and termite mounds; they are often seen in dry riverbeds and crossing roads. When threatened, it will try strenuously to escape; it will spread a hood and spit if totally cornered, but does so reluctantly. It can also bite. Between 10 and 20 eggs are laid. This snake feeds on small vertebrates, including mammals, frogs, lizards and other snakes.

Natural History: Mostly terrestrial, but able to climb well; adults readily ascend low trees and even sleep in them. Adults are mostly active at night, but sometimes by day; juveniles are often active during the day, presumably to avoid competition with adults and/or to avoid being eaten by them. When not active, individuals shelter in termite hills, holes, rock fissures or under ground cover such as logs and brush piles. This species is very quick and alert; if molested it may rear up (sometimes quite high), spread a hood and spit readily (it can also spit without spreading a hood) to a distance of 2m or more. It sometimes pretends to be dead. Females lay 10–22 eggs, roughly 35 × 20mm, in December/January (summer) in southern Africa. The diet is quite varied; it is fond of amphibians but also takes lizards, rodents, other snakes (including its own kind) and even insects. It is often common; in a large snake collection from south-east Botswana it was the most abundant species.

Medical Significance: Often common in parts of its range, active on the ground at night and liable to be trodden on, so probably a significant hazard, although there seem to be very few documented bites from this snake. An average wet venom yield of 100mg has been reported, and other cobras in this clade have predominantly cytotoxic venoms, causing swelling and local necrosis. The venom is probably produced in large quantities. As with other spitting cobras, a bite should be treated in a well-equipped hospital. Antivenom is available. Venom in the eye is also a frequent result of an encounter with this snake, causing agonising pain, and, if untreated, corneal lesions and complications. The affected eye must be gently irrigated with large quantities of water. Anyone who has been spat at should visit a hospital or eye clinic for an assessment of the damage to the eye.

West African Brown Spitting Cobra, Naja katiensis.

Identification: A relatively small, usually reddish cobra of the dry country of the Horn of Africa. It has a smallish head and a large eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail fairly long, 15–19% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 21–27 rows at midbody; ventrals 192–228; subcaudals 56–81. Maximum size about 1.5m (possibly larger), most adults 0.7–1.2m; hatchlings about 16–20cm. The colour is variable; specimens from northern Tanzania and eastern and southern Kenya (especially those from red soil areas) are orange or red, with a broad black throat band several (sometimes two or three) scales deep, and a black ‘suture’ on the scales below the eye, giving the impression of a teardrop. They are reddish below, sometimes with a white chin and throat. Specimens from other areas may be pale red, pinkish, pinky-grey, red-brown, yellow or steel grey. Most, however, have the dark throat band. In large adults, this band may fade or disappear. Red specimens become dull red-brown with increasing size.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but it may climb into bushes and low trees. It is quick-moving and alert. Adults are mostly nocturnal, hiding in holes (particularly in termite hills), brush piles, old logs or under ground cover during the day, but juveniles are often active during the day. When disturbed, it rears up relatively high and spreads a long, narrow hood, and may spit twin jets of venom to distances of 2–3m. It lays 6–15 eggs, about 50 × 25mm. A juvenile was taken on the eastern Tharaka Plain, Kenya, in October and at Olorgesailie in July. Amphibians are its favourite food; when the storms arrive in the dry country where this snake lives, the frogs all come out and the snake gorges itself. A specimen in Tsavo was found at night up in a thorn tree, eating foam-nest tree-frogs. It also takes rodents and birds, is known to raid chicken runs, and probably eats other snakes. It will come around houses in dry country looking for water, and for frogs that live in or near water tanks.

Red Spitting Cobra, Naja pallida.

Identification: A relatively small, usually brown or grey cobra of the Nile Valley and north-east Africa. It has a smallish head and a large eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical, and the tail fairly long, 15–19% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 23–27 rows at midbody; ventrals 207–226; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 58–72. Maximum size about 1.5m (possibly larger), most adults 0.7–1.2m; hatchlings about 16–20cm. The colour is variable, from warm brown to maroon, grey or olive; juveniles are usually lighter. The scales are sometimes black-edged, giving a net-like effect. There is usually a dark band on the neck, which may cross the underside of the hood, and below this are two dark bands that always cross the throat. There is a black ‘teardrop’ created by the black edging of the labial scales below and behind the eye. The underside is white, cream or brown.

Natural History: Terrestrial, but it may climb into bushes and low trees. This snake is quick-moving and alert. Adults are mostly nocturnal, hiding in holes, rock fissures or under ground cover during day, but juveniles are often active during the day. When disturbed, it rears up and spreads a hood, and may spit twin jets of venom. It apparently swims well. Females lay eggs. The diet is probably similar to that of the Red Spitting Cobra (Naja pallida), although captive animals feed readily on mice. This species is often used by Egyptian ‘snake charmers’, despite the fact that it can spit and thus represents a hazard to all observers.

Medical Significance: Fairly common in parts of its range, active on the ground at night and liable to be trodden on, so probably a significant hazard, but there seem to be very few documented bites from this snake. The venom is cytotoxic, causing swelling and local necrosis. The venom is probably produced in large quantities. As with other spitting cobras, a bite should be treated in a well-equipped hospital. Venom in the eye is also a frequent result of an encounter with this snake, causing agonising pain, and, if untreated, corneal lesions and complications. The affected eye must be gently irrigated with large quantities of water. Anyone who has been spat at should visit a hospital or eye clinic for an assessment of the damage to the eye.

Nubian Spitting Cobra, Naja nubiae.

Tree cobras occur in forested tropical Africa. Two species are known. They are large, agile black or dark brown tree snakes with huge eyes. They look like a cross between a mamba (Dendroaspis) and a cobra; recent molecular work indicates they are the sister species to true cobras. In medical terms they are not very significant; being alert tree snakes that live in forest, they rarely come into contact with people. They have potent neurotoxic venoms, presumably causing a descending paralysis. A bite victim in DR Congo died in 12 hours. No antivenom is available, but the polyvalent antivenom produced by South African Vaccine Producers (SAVP) is reported to be effective at neutralising tree cobra venom.

Medical Significance: Rarely comes into contact with humans, being an alert diurnal tree snake with good eyesight; it moves rapidly away from confrontation, although a collector described it as being quick to try to bite if it thinks it is cornered. The venom is a potent neurotoxin; a snake collector in eastern DR Congo was bitten during a demonstration and died within 12 hours. South African Vaccine Producers (SAVP) polyvalent antivenom, although not prepared for this snake, is reportedly effective against the venom. A bite case would need to be transported rapidly to hospital, and respiratory support may be needed.

Gold’s Tree Cobra, Pseudohaje goldii.

Identification: Virtually identical to Gold’s Tree Cobra (Pseudohaje goldii). A large thin-bodied, shiny tree cobra with a short head. The eye is huge and dark, with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail long and thin, 20–22% of total length; it ends in a spike. The scales are very smooth and glossy; in 15 rows on the neck but 13 rows at midbody; ventrals 180–187; subcaudals 74–82. Maximum size 2.2m (possibly larger); most adults average 1.6–2.1m; hatchling size unknown, but probably 35–45cm. The colour is black, shiny brownish black or shiny deep brown above, and the scales on the chin, throat and side of the head are yellow edged with black.

Habitat and Distribution: Forest or thick woodland, between sea level and about 800m, or possibly higher. It is often found near rivers, and might extend out of the forest proper in riverine forest; a specimen from Kintampo in Ghana was in Guinea savanna woodland with stands of tall trees and almost continuous canopy. This is essentially a West African forest snake; it occurs from Ghana west to Sierra Leone and Guinea (although records are lacking from Ivory Coast.). There are isolated records from hill forests on the Ghana–Togo border, and from Enugu in Nigeria, although recent research in Nigeria failed to find the species and suggests it might no longer occur there.

Natural History: Very poorly known; almost nothing is published, but it is probably similar to Gold’s Tree Cobra. It is presumably arboreal, but will descend to the ground. It is very quick-moving in trees, climbing fast and well, and moves rapidly on the ground, often with the head raised and alert; if disturbed it will pause with the head up. Both active and resting specimens have been captured during the day, and it might be predominantly diurnal or nocturnal. This snake has been described as ‘a cross between a mamba and a cobra’. It might be able to flatten the neck slightly, as can Gold’s Tree Cobra. Females lay eggs. This snake probably eats amphibians, and maybe mammals.

Medical Significance: As for the previous species.

Black Tree Cobra, Pseudohaje nigra.

Black desert elapids; two species occur in the dry country and deserts of Egypt and the Middle East, the eastern species (Walterinnesia morgani) being recently elevated from the synonymy of the western form (Walterinnesia aegyptia). They are fairly large, quick-moving black elapid snakes with a medium-sized, broad head. The body is stocky and cylindrical, and the scales smooth. Although rare, they are alert and will bite if cornered; a few bite cases are documented. They are not aggressive, but can strike a long way. The venom is neurotoxic and has caused deaths, although no recent fatalities are documented. They are closely related to cobras but do not spread a hood, so the name ‘black desert cobras’, although widely used, is not appropriate as it may lead to confusion with black-coloured Egyptian Cobras (Naja haje).

Identification: A large black snake of the Egyptian desert, usually active at night. It has a fairly broad head, slightly distinct from the neck, and a smallish, dark eye with a round pupil (which is hard to see). The body is cylindrical and the tail long and thin, 12–15% of total length, ending in a spike. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 23 rows at midbody; ventrals 186–198; subcaudals 43–53, largely single but, unusually, some are often in pairs. Maximum size about 1.3m, average 0.8–1.2m; hatchlings 20–35cm. The colour is black or dark grey, often with a bluish sheen, and paler whitish grey or sometimes yellow-brown beneath. This snake becomes grey before sloughing. The sides of the head and lip scales are often lighter in Egyptian animals, becoming light grey or yellow-brown on the snout.

Habitat and Distribution: Known from rocky desert, gravel or sandy plains, vegetated wadis and hilly and mountainous desert. However, it is seemingly more common near agriculture and irrigated areas, and in and around desert and desert-fringe settlements and oases (although this might be simply due to the fact that the collectors favoured these spots rather than deep desert). It is absent from extensive areas of soft sand and dunes. This species occurs between sea level and 1,200m (possibly higher; Walterinnesia morgani ascends to over 2,000m in mountains). In Africa, it occurs eastwards and north-eastwards from Cairo into the Sinai Peninsula (there are few records from the interior of the Sinai), then into Israel, Jordan and the north-west corner of Saudi Arabia; Walterinnesia morgani occurs further east. There are no credible records west of the Nile, but it might occur in Egypt’s eastern desert, as people living there know of a large black desert snake.

Medical Significance: A seemingly rare snake, and apparently reluctant to bite, so not of major clinical significance. However, it is active on the ground at night and liable to be trodden on, and a few daytime bites are also recorded, where the snake was disturbed during building or agricultural work. The venom is neurotoxic, and laboratory studies also indicate some haemorrhagic activity. Antivenom is available. A series of bite cases in Israel resulted in localised pain and swelling, fever, generalised weakness, nausea and vomiting; there were no fatalities. A bite in Iraq from Walterinnesia morgani caused severe weakness, intense numbness at the bite site, respiratory distress and double vision; the victim was treated with antivenom and recovered completely. A known fatal case occurred in Iraq in the 1930s; the victim died several hours after the bite. As with other large elapids, a bite should be treated in a well-equipped hospital.

Desert Black Snake, Walterinnesia aegyptia.

A genus containing two small, attractive, rather stout nocturnal elapids of southern Africa, originally known as the Coral Snake and the Shield-nose Snake. They have a large, prominently protruding rostral scale that shields the nose, hence the name. Although not true cobras, they will rear up and spread a very narrow hood. They lie within a clade that includes all true cobras, and their closest relatives (at present) appear to be the desert black snakes, Walterinnesia. They are not regarded as medically significant, as they are secretive and nocturnal. However, they can be locally common, especially in the rainy season, and they are active on the ground at night and willing to bite. No antivenom is available. There are conflicting reports about their venom, with reports of both cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects, and at least one is known to have caused the death of a child. They need to be treated with care.

Natural History: A nocturnal terrestrial snake, said to be active throughout the night, even at relatively low temperatures; a number of specimens have been captured while crossing roads at night. It shelters during the day under rocks or in holes, abandoned termitaria and rock crevices. Captive animals have been observed excavating shelters beneath rocks by digging with the nose and scooping the sand with the neck. When threatened, this snake rears up and flattens the neck like a true cobra, presenting a narrow hood. If further molested, it will produce a loud, short, explosive hiss and may lunge forward in an attempt to bite. Male–male combat is recorded. Mating occurs in the southern spring. Three to 11 eggs are laid, roughly 20 × 30mm, and hatch in around two months. The diet includes lizards, small snakes, reptile eggs and rodents; captive snakes take rodents readily.

Coral Shield Cobra, Aspidelaps lubricus.

Identification: A small, stocky snake, often with a black neck, of the savannas and semi-desert of southern Africa. It rears up like a cobra. It has a short head with a prominent rostral scale, and a huge dark eye with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical and the tail relatively short, 12–17% of total length. The scales are smooth and glossy; in 21–23 rows at midbody; ventrals 108–125; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals 19–39. Maximum size around 75cm; most adults average 40–60cm; hatchlings 14–20cm. The colour is variable. The two main subspecies (Aspidelaps scutatus scutatus and A. s. intermedius) are both usually various shades of brown or pinky-brown, or sometimes orange or grey, and uniform or spotted or speckled to a greater or lesser extent. In some individuals (especially of the extreme eastern subspecies, A. s. fulafula) the back has large black spots that almost become cross-bars. The head and neck are often black, to a greater or lesser extent, and the underside is cream, white or grey, usually with a broad, deep black neck bar.

Habitat and Distribution: In semi-desert and moist and dry savanna, between sea level and 1,400m, or sometimes slightly higher. It occurs in northern Namibia, most of Botswana except the south-west corner, the northern provinces of South Africa, southern Mozambique, and western, southern and south-east Zimbabwe. Those in eastern Mpumalanga and Limpopo are the subspecies Aspidelaps scutatus intermedius; those in south-eastern Zimbabwe and Mozambique are the subspecies A. s. fulafula; and those in the remainder of the range are the nominate subspecies, A. s. scutatus.

Medical Significance: This snake is quite widespread in southern Africa, and parts of its range are densely populated; it is also active on the ground at night, and sometimes present in numbers, which increases the risk. On one wet night in Mpumalanga five were found on the road. There are conflicting reports on the effects of its venom; it has caused both cytotoxic (swelling and local pain) and neurotoxic symptoms (facial muscle weakness and respiratory distress). The lethal dose for a mouse was about twice that of a Cape Cobra (Naja nivea). No antivenom is available. A single fatality is documented: a four-year-old child died 16 hours after a bite from this snake; she stopped breathing. Bite victims should visit a hospital, where symptomatic treatment can be given.

Speckled Shield Cobra, Aspidelaps scutatus.

A monotopic genus containing a single species, a stocky southern African endemic that looks identical to a true cobra; in defence it rears up and spreads a broad hood. If differs from true cobras in having keeled scales, giving birth to live young and having a maxillary (upper jaw) bone with fangs but without solid teeth. It can spit its venom. It lies within a clade that includes all true cobras (Naja), but split from them more than 30 million years ago. It is a medically significant species, as it is widespread across a wide area of well-populated South Africa, is tolerant of urbanisation and can be locally common. Antivenom is available. The venom is both cytotoxic and neurotoxic.

Habitat and Distribution: In grassland, including high montane areas, moist savanna, rocky outcrops, lowland forest and heathland (fynbos), between sea level and 2,500m. It occurs from sea level in the Western Cape, South Africa, all around Cape Town, then through the Cape Fold Mountains into the Eastern Cape, although it is seemingly absent from some areas. From the Eastern Cape it spreads northwards along the eastern escarpment through Kwazulu-Natal and the Lesotho and Free State grasslands, into Gauteng, eastern North West Province, Mpumalanga and western Eswatini (Swaziland). It has been reported from Kimberley, but there are no recent records. An isolated population occurs around the Nyanga National Park in the highlands of eastern Zimbabwe, mostly over 1,500m, in grassland and stunted miombo woodland. It is speculated that this population may be extinct; no specimens have been collected there for over 25 years.

Medical Significance: This snake is quite widespread in South Africa and is tolerant of urbanisation, clinging on because of its secretive habits. Parts of its range are densely populated, and it is active on the ground by day and night, so it represents a significant snakebite hazard. A polyvalent antivenom is available and effective. The venom is both cytotoxic and neurotoxic, with a curiously broad symptomology that includes painful swelling of the bitten limb, nausea, dizziness and respiratory distress. However, there are no credible recent reports of any fatalities. As with other large elapids, a bite should be treated in a well-equipped hospital. Venom in the eye is also a frequent result of an encounter with this snake, causing agonising pain, and, if untreated, corneal lesions and complications can occur. The affected eye must be gently irrigated with large quantities of water. Anyone who has been spat at should visit a hospital or eye clinic for an assessment of the damage to the eye.

Rinkhals, Hemachatus haemachatus.

Subfamily Hydrophiinae

Viviparous sea snakes and Australian land elapids

A family of front-fanged, venomous snakes, living on the land and in the sea; the terrestrial species look quite different from the marine ones. Their taxonomy is still under investigation, but at present there are around 50 species in the genus Hydrophis (sea snakes). One species, the Yellow-bellied Sea Snake (Hydrophis platurus), occurs in the western Indian Ocean and occasionally comes ashore on the eastern coasts of Africa. No other sea snakes are known from the shores of mainland Africa; reports of other sea snakes on African coasts are invariably either snake eels or moray eels. These may be told from sea snakes by their pointed tails; the sea snake has an oar-like tail. In general, sea snakes are not a hazard to those who work on or near the sea as they avoid confrontation in the water and are clumsy on land. A few bites are documented.

Identification: A medium-sized black and yellow sea snake. The head is long and tapering, the eye is small with a round pupil, and the nostrils are on top of the head. The body is laterally compressed and the tail is short, vertically flattened and oar-like, about 10% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 49–76 rows at midbody; ventrals 264–406. Maximum size about 90cm, average 60–85cm; hatchlings 24–25cm. It has bright warning colours; the broad dorsal stripe is usually black, greeny-black or very dark brown, the belly is yellow, and the tail is spotted black and cream or yellow. The dorsal stripe may be straight-edged (most African specimens are this colour), wavy, break up into black saddles or totally disappear.

Natural History: Lives mostly in open water, not around reefs, but usually within 300km of land. It is usually washed ashore only when dying or accidentally in storms; it can only wriggle in an ungainly fashion on land. It is a superb swimmer, moving with side-to-side undulations like a snake on land, but it can swim backwards and forwards and is capable of very rapid bursts of speed. This species is often found in the vicinity of sea slicks (long, narrow lines of floating vegetation and accumulated debris on the sea surface), where it waits quietly to ambush fish; it may attack individual fish or rush into a small shoal, indiscriminately biting everything it can grab. It is afraid of humans and moves off if approached by swimmers. Three to eight young are born live; gravid females have been collected between March and October off the South African coast. Concentrations of up to 10 snakes have been seen in East African waters; a group of six was found in Turtle Bay, Watamu, Kenya. The sea snake sloughs its skin as do land snakes, but since it doesn’t have convenient objects to rub against, it forms tight loops, rubbing coil against coil; in this way it also frees itself from sea animals like barnacles.

Medical Significance: This is a dangerously venomous snake, although bites are extremely rare (and often not noticed). Those at risk are fishermen who may mishandle the snake while emptying their nets; a snakebite to a swimmer, diver or snorkeller is unheard of. The venom is a powerful neurotoxin, and a bite may lead to paralysis, muscle destruction, renal failure and cardiac arrest. Early symptoms include headache, a thick feeling of the tongue, thirst, sweating and vomiting, then pain, stiffness and tenderness, followed by paralysis as in other neurotoxic poisoning; this may lead to respiratory failure. There is no swelling. No antivenom is produced in Africa, but it is available in Australia.

Yellow-bellied Sea Snake, Hydrophis platurus.

African snakes (house snakes and allies)

A family of African, Madagascan and Asian snakes, with eight subfamilies and over 50 genera; over 30 are mainland African. Most are harmless or rear-fanged, but the burrowing asps (Atractaspis) and harlequin snakes (Homoroselaps) are front-fanged.

Subfamily Atractaspidinae

Burrowing asps and harlequin snakes

A subfamily of two genera and 24 species, found in Africa, with a limited penetration into the Arabian Peninsula. The two genera are easily distinguished (see the following key).

Burrowing asps cannot, under any circumstances, be held safely by hand. Their heads are too short and their fangs too long; this enables them to bite any restraining finger, no matter how tight the grip. Do not try it. The snake can slide a fang out of its mouth, without actually opening the mouth. The fang is then driven into the finger by a downwards stab. Such bites consequently usually show a single fang puncture. If held by the tail they can jerk upwards and bite the hand. The fangs are primarily used for stabbing and manipulating their prey, an adaptation that may be useful for feeding in holes, and they have been reported to enter a rodent nest and stab all the young before commencing feeding. Apart from the fangs, burrowing asps are virtually toothless, and thus struggle to ingest prey, having to flex the neck and body to swallow (other snakes manipulate prey with their solid teeth, a process called cranial kinesis).

Burrowing asps are not aggressive snakes, and move away from humans; even if teased they do not open their mouths and lunge forwards. However, they are medically significant; they cause a lot of bites, particularly in Africa’s warm tropical lowlands. This is for several reasons. They have a huge range; you will find at least one species of burrowing asp virtually everywhere in sub-Saharan Africa (except true desert and some highland areas), and often more. They are often relatively common, and they emerge from their holes and move around on the ground at night, particularly during the wet season. Being slim and active, they often enter buildings and shelters, and people tread on them, roll on them in their sleep or otherwise inadvertently restrain them. The snake turns and bites immediately. In the daytime, people farming or gardening with short tools are also at risk.

Burrowing asps have very long venom glands. Their venom is largely cytotoxic, although a handful of species have been shown to have sarafotoxins (which constrict coronary blood vessels, causing angina–endothelin-like effects) in their venom. The potential effects of the sarafotoxins on humans are as yet unquantified, but some bite victims have shown elevated blood pressure, ECG changes and anaphylaxis. Bite symptoms nearly always include swelling, pain, lymphadenitis and discolouration, often with some local necrosis; symptoms usually resolve in a couple of weeks. Occasionally amputation has been needed. Fever is often present. No antivenom is available for African species (one has been produced for the Arabian Small-scaled Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis andersonii, but this is not commercially available at the time of writing); bites are treated symptomatically.

Natural History: Poorly known. This species lives and hunts in holes, but may emerge at night (especially during or after rain) and move around on the ground. If molested, it shows the distinctive responses mentioned in the generic introduction (pointing the head, releasing a chemical, and jerking and lashing). The diet is mostly rodents and smooth-bodied reptiles in the west of its range, but Tanzanian specimens have been recorded eating caecilians, and some captive specimens are reported to eat invertebrates. Females lay eggs, but the details are unknown.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. Swelling, pain and subsequent lymphadenopathy resulted from a bite, with some slight local necrosis. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Slender Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis aterrima.

Identification: A small, fairly slim, dark, slow-moving snake with a prominent snout. The tongue is white. The body is cylindrical and the tail is short and blunt, 5–7% of total length, ending in a pointed cone. The scales are in 19–25 rows at midbody; ventrals 213–262; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 18–28. Maximum size about 70cm, average 30–50cm; hatchlings 20cm. The body may be black, brown, pinkish or purplish brown (especially in Kenyan coast animals), or grey, often with a purplish sheen on the scales, and the belly may be lead grey, brownish, white or pale with a series of dark blotches. Animals with dark ventrals may have white patches on the chin and throat, or around the tail base (see the bottom picture, opposite). If the belly is pale, the pale colour may extend up to the lowest two to three scale rows on the sides and onto the upper labials.

Natural History: Nocturnal and terrestrial, spending much time in holes, in rotting logs or under ground cover, but it is active on the ground on wet nights. Like the previous species, when molested it shows a distinctive response, arching the neck, pointing the snout into the ground, jerking convulsively and releasing a distinctive chemical smell. Clutches of 3–8 eggs have been recorded, roughly 35 × 15mm. Known prey items for this species include rodents, shrews, burrowing skinks, skink eggs, snakes and worm lizards.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land, where people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. In a survey in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa, six out of eight people bitten by this snake trod on it; three of these were inside a building, and one rolled on the snake while sleeping. The venom manifests itself as largely cytotoxic. Swelling, pain, skin discolouration, lymphangitis, subsequent lymphadenopathy and occasionally necrosis (especially to digit tips), as well as systemic symptoms like angioedema, resulted from bites. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. In coastal South Africa and Tanzania this snake is responsible for many bites, but no fatalities are recorded.

Taxonomic Notes: Recent analysis of this small, widespread snake suggests that it represents a species complex and it may be split in the future; the northern animals (originally regarded as a subspecies, Atractaspis bibronii rostrata) form a separate clade.

Bibron’s Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis bibronii.

Identification: A medium-sized burrowing asp of the Central African forest. The head is blunt and the eyes tiny. The tail is short and blunt, 6–8% of total length, ending in a pointed cone. The scales are in 21–25 rows at midbody; ventrals 192–218; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals usually paired but sometimes single, 22–27. Maximum size about 65cm, average 30–50cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is usually black or blackish grey above, and paler below.

Habitat and Distribution: Essentially a forest snake. It occurs from southern Cameroon eastwards to the western watershed of the Albertine Rift, south to about 5°S. It extends south almost to the Angolan border; its distribution on the lower Congo River is uncertain. There are no definite records from Angola, but it might occur there. It is reported rather doubtfully from northern Cameroon.

Natural History: Poorly known. It lives and hunts in holes, but may emerge at night (especially during or after rain) and move around on the ground. If molested, it shows the distinctive responses mentioned in the generic introduction (pointing the head, releasing a chemical, and jerking and lashing). Females lay eggs, but the details are unknown.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Central African Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis boulengeri.

Identification: A small, slender burrowing asp, recently described from the West African forest. The head is blunt and the eyes tiny. The tail is fairly short and blunt, 4–6% of total length, ending in a pointed cone. The scales are in 19–20 rows at midbody; ventrals 276–288; cloacal scale divided; subcaudals single, 19–25. Described from two specimens, one 28cm, the other 72cm (a third animal was too damaged to use). The colour is pinky-grey and iridescent, the dorsal scales with a paler margin.

Natural History: Unknown, but presumably similar to other burrowing asps (i.e. nocturnal, terrestrial, etc.). The type was crawling along the banks of a creek at night; when picked up, it tried to hide its head under its coils, and to strike. It tried to crawl away and abruptly coiled and uncoiled, often springing distances almost equal to its body length. This species was described in 2019, and named after Dr William Roy (Bill) Branch, one of the authors.

Medical Significance: It has a small range, and its venom is probably similar to that of other burrowing asps, so it is not a major hazard. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Bill Branch’s Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis branchi.

Identification: A medium-sized burrowing asp of south-central Africa. The head is blunt and the eyes tiny. The tail is short and blunt, 5–8% of total length, ending in a pointed cone. The scales are in 19–21 (sometimes 23) rows at midbody; ventrals 190–237; cloacal scale divided; subcaudals paired, 18–25. Maximum size about 55cm, average 30–45cm; hatchling size unknown. It is quite variable in colour for a burrowing asp, being black, blue-black, steel grey or pinkish grey; the scales (especially on the forepart of the body) are light-edged.

Habitat and Distribution: Forest and moist savanna, from sea level to 1,600m, or maybe higher. It occurs from the lower Congo River south to south-central Angola, east to the western shore of Lake Tanganyika, and also in north-west and northern Zambia. An isolated population occurs in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia, and in southern Cameroon; this species seems to be absent from Gabon.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. A bite victim in Zambia suffered pain (initially intense), swelling, lymphadenitis and blistering.

Congo Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis congica.

Identification: A medium-sized, stocky, slow-moving snake. The scales are in 23–29 rows at midbody; ventrals 178–208; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 22–28. Maximum size about 70cm, average 30–50cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is dark brown, slaty grey or black; occasional specimens from parts of its West African range (Cote D’Ivoire and Ghana) may have a white tip to the tail. Grey individuals may have a bluish sheen to the scales. The body is paler below.

Natural History: Poorly known, but presumably similar to other burrowing asps.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. Most reported cases involved only pain, local swelling, paraesthesia, feverishness and lymphadenopathy; one case showed haematuria. However, a recent fatality was reported for this snake in Republic of the Congo. The victim had initial severe pain, swelling, shortness of breath, vomiting and diarrhoea. He received antivenom, but two and a half hours after the bite, he went into cardiorespiratory arrest. The actual cause of death was not certain; it was possibly due to anaphylaxis from the venom, but might have been caused by the effect of the venom on the myocardium.

Fat Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis corpulenta.

Identification: A medium-sized snake; juveniles are fairly thin but large adults can become very stout. The tail is 5–9% of total length. The scales are in 29–35 rows at midbody; ventrals 210–250; cloacal scale entire; some subcaudals single, some paired, 22–30. Maximum size about 60cm, average 30–50cm; hatchling size unknown, but probably 14–16cm. The body is dark brown, grey, pinky-grey or black, and paler below. An albino specimen has been recorded from Ghana.

Natural History: Terrestrial and nocturnal; it lives underground but emerges at night in the rainy season. It is a rather slow-moving snake, but quick to bite if restrained. Females lay eggs. The diet consists of small vertebrates.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where many people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. In a series of cases from Nigeria, victims experienced pain at the bite site and developed local swelling, which reached its maximum within 24 hours and usually resolved within five days. Some patients had enlarged and tender lymph nodes and mild fever. No necrosis was observed.

Dahomey Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis dahomeyensis,

Identification: A medium-sized, moderately thick snake with a distinctly rounded snout, in disjunct populations in southern Africa. It has a short, deep head. The scales are in 21–25 (usually 23) rows at midbody; ventrals 193–225; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 19–27. Maximum size about 55cm, average 30–45cm; hatchling size unknown. The body is black, greyish black or grey, and white, cream or pinkish below, the paler colour extending up onto the lower scale rows on the flanks and the lips.

Natural History: Terrestrial and nocturnal; it lives underground but emerges at night in the rainy season, and is active mostly during the summer (October to April). It is a rather slow-moving snake, and quite good-natured for a burrowing asp, being surprisingly reluctant to bite. It lays eggs. The diet consists of small vertebrates; known prey items include lacertid lizards and snakes. It is less common than Bibron’s Burrowing Asp (Atractaspis bibronii) within its range.

Medical Significance: It has a small range, and its venom is probably similar to that of other burrowing asps, so it is not a major hazard. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Duerden’s Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis duerdeni.

Identification: A relatively large burrowing asp, and the only one in Egypt. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, 7% of total length. The scales are in 25–29 rows at midbody; ventrals 263–284 (usually 275–282 in Egypt); cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 32–40 (usually 34–36 in Egypt). Maximum size over 80cm (the largest Egyptian snake measured 68.5cm), average 40–60cm; hatchling size unknown, but probably about 15cm. The colour is shiny black, above and below.

Habitat and Distribution: Semi-desert, often in large wadis and around oases. It is not found on mainland Africa, but has been recorded from Wadi Feiran and the Mount Sinai area in the Sinai Peninsula, at around 200–300m. It also occurs in western Jordan, southern and eastern Israel, and western Saudi Arabia.

Medical Significance: It has a small range in inhospitable country, so relatively few bites occur. However, some severe cases are documented, including fatalities, and may be connected with the sarafotoxins present; this is probably the most dangerous African species. The usual burrowing asp symptomology of immediate pain, swelling, paraesthesia and lymphadenitis is often present, but more alarming effects sometimes seen include violent autonomic symptoms (nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, muscle weakness, breathing difficulties, sweating, profuse salivation and sudden elevation of blood pressure) within minutes of the bite. One patient developed severe dyspnoea with acute respiratory failure, one had weakness, impaired consciousness and transient hypertension, and in three there were electrocardiographic changes. A child bitten by this snake in Saudi Arabia died following an atrioventricular block. At present, no antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Palestine Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis engaddensis.

Identification: A small burrowing asp of the dry country of north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia. The snout appears rounded from above but shark-like in profile. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, 5–6% of total length. The scales are in 19 rows at midbody; ventrals 219–232; cloacal scale divided; subcaudals paired, 19–23. Maximum size about 45cm, average 25–40cm; hatchling size unknown, but probably about 15cm. The body is black, blue-black or red-brown (juveniles can be quite light brown), and paler below.

Natural History: Poorly known, but it is presumably similar to other Atractaspis, living underground and eating largely smooth-bodied reptiles. Specimens have been captured in termitaria, in holes and prowling in semi-desert at night; the Wajir Bor specimen was in a dry well.

Medical Significance: It has a small range, and its venom is probably similar to that of other burrowing asps, so it is not a major hazard. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Engdahl’s Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis engdahli.

Natural History: Nocturnal and terrestrial, spending much time in holes or under ground cover, but it is active on the ground on wet nights. It shows the nose-pointing response if molested. A female from the Mabira Forest in Uganda contained six eggs; mating was observed there in September. This species is known to eat rodents as well as small reptiles.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where many people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. It is said to be a major cause of snakebite in DR Congo. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. In most documented cases, the usual symptoms of pain, swelling and lymphadenopathy are present. More extensive general muscle pain may be experienced, and elevated heart rates have been noted, which may be due to the sarafotoxins. There have been two recorded fatalities, both of which involved exceptional circumstances and an incomplete clinical picture. In the first, a victim in Liberia was bitten a number of times after rolling on the snake in his sleep; he died quickly without treatment. In similar circumstances, a 10-month-old baby was bitten while asleep and died within minutes.

Taxonomic Notes: In 1959, Gaston de Witte described Atractaspis battersbyi from Bolobo, on the lower Congo River. The two specimens were 82.5cm and 52.5cm; midbody scale count 23; ventral scales 341 and 348; subcaudals 22 and 23. Most authorities regard these specimens as aberrant examples of Atractaspis irregularis, despite the large size of one animal and high ventral counts. Likewise, in 1960 Jean-Luc Perret described Atractaspis coalescens from south-west Cameroon, on the basis of head scalation that differed very slightly from A. irregularis; no more specimens have been found, and it seems A. coalescens is probably an aberrant example of A. irregularis.

Variable Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis irregularis.

Identification: A small, slim burrowing asp of the northern Horn of Africa, with a white head and white vertebral stripe. The scales are in 23 rows at midbody; ventrals 230–243; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 27–29. Maximum size uncertain, but probably around 50cm, average 20–30cm. It is distinctly marked, with a white or pale head and a dark crown; the back is dark with a fine yellow-white vertebral stripe. The four lowest scale rows and the ventrals are white, with a broad black throat band. This is one of two distinctly marked burrowing asps from the Horn of Africa; this species and the Somali Burrowing Asp (Atractaspis scorteccii) are the only burrowing asps to have any sort of large-scale markings, all the rest being uniform in colour.

Habitat and Distribution: Known from two specimens alone, from dry savanna and grassland: one from the Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia (although the exact locality is unknown); the second on the Somali–Djibouti border, in a region of sandy soil with grass and stunted thornbush at an altitude of 300m.

Natural History: Nothing is known of its biology, and most of its range lies within a militarily unsafe area. One specimen is reported as having been captured during the day, but it is not stated if the snake was active or not; burrowing asps are usually nocturnal. Its habits are presumably similar to those of other burrowing asps.

Medical Significance: A small, rare snake with a small range, so it is unlikely to deliver much venom in a bite; the venom is probably similar to that of other burrowing asps, so it is not a major hazard. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Ogaden Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis leucomelas.

Identification: A large, stout burrowing asp with a white head, from the dry country of far north-east Africa. The scales are in 23–25 rows at midbody; ventrals 215–230; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 30–34. Maximum size about 85cm, average 50–75cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is usually black or dark brown, with a broad white ring right around the neck. The top of the head is mottled dark brown. The lips, chin and throat are white, and there is often a dark patch behind and slightly below the eye. The belly is white, mottled with dark brown, and the outer edges of the belly scales are dark. This is one of two distinctly marked burrowing asps from the Horn of Africa; this species and the Ogaden Burrowing Asp (Atractaspis leucomelas) are the only burrowing asps to have any sort of large-scale markings, all the rest being uniform in colour.

Habitat and Distribution: Known from only a handful of specimens from sandy and stony country in the dry grassland and semi-desert of eastern Ethiopia and northern Somalia, between 600m and 1,100m.

Natural History: First described in 1949, but virtually nothing is known of its biology, and most of its range lies within a militarily unsafe area. The significance of the white neck band is unknown, but another African snake with a near-identical pattern, the Pale-collared Snake-eater (Polemon graueri), found in the forested lake regions of western Uganda and DR Congo, feeds on snakes, suggesting that the Somali Burrowing Asp may do so too.

Somali Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis scorteccii.

Identification: A huge, broad-headed burrowing asp of Central Africa. The head is short and broad. The scales are in 21–23 (occasionally 19) rows at midbody; ventrals 308–344; cloacal scale divided; subcaudals paired, 21–26. Maximum size about 1.14m, average 60–90cm; hatchling size unknown. The body is usually grey, and the dorsal scales are pale-edged, giving the snake its reticulate or ‘net-like’ appearance.

Habitat and Distribution: Forests and moist savanna, between sea level and 1,400m. It occurs from southern Cameroon eastwards, just reaching south-west Central African Republic, across DR Congo to the southern Albertine Rift, and southwards to north-west Angola. There are isolated records from Mbeya in Tanzania and Bauchi in Nigeria, and a possible record from Ghana.

Natural History: Poorly known, despite its huge range. It is terrestrial and nocturnal, and lives underground but emerges at night in the rainy season. It lays eggs. The diet consists of small vertebrates.

Medical Significance: A widespread species that is sometimes common, is active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land where many people farm with short tools, so is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. The symptomology is probably similar to that of other burrowing asps, with pain, swelling and lymphadenopathy. No antivenom is available and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Reticulate Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis reticulata.

This is a complex of six species of relatively large, stocky, broad-headed burrowing asps. They occur eastwards from Senegal across the Sahel and savanna of West and Central Africa, encircle the Ethiopian highlands and extend south to northern Tanzania. They were all regarded as subspecies of Atractaspis microlepidota for a long time (or even just differing examples of a single, rather variable species). But recent systematic and molecular work suggests that at least six taxa are involved. However, exactly where one taxon ends and another begins is not certain. Many specimens in the low country surrounding high central Ethiopia are problematic, where the various taxa are separated by slight differences in lepidosis. Where the identity of specimens is equivocal, we have assigned them zoogeographically, which may differ slightly from some published data. Historically, members of this complex have caused some deaths, although no recent, clinically well-documented cases that indicate the venom was directly responsible for the fatality are known.

Identification: A fairly large black burrowing asp of the savanna of western West Africa. It is a stocky snake with a short, broad head. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, about 7% of total length, ending in a spike. The scales are smooth; in 29–33 rows at midbody; ventrals 198–222; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 21–26. Maximum length 67cm, average 40–60cm; hatchling size unknown. The dorsal colour is glossy uniform black, and the underside is usually lighter, often grey.

Habitat and Distribution: In the Sudan savanna and Sahel of West Africa, at low altitude, between sea level and 200m. This species is known only from Senegal, the Gambia, and southern and south-western Mauritania.

Medical Significance: A snake with a small range, and whose venom is probably similar to that of other burrowing asps (i.e. causes pain, swelling, etc.), so it is probably not a major hazard. However, it can grow fairly large, and a similar species has caused fatalities, so a bite needs to be monitored and, if necessary, treated at a competent hospital. No antivenom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Western Small-scaled Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis microlepidota.

Identification: A fairly large brown burrowing asp of the Sahel. It is a stocky snake with a short, broad head. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, less than 10% of total length, ending in a spike. The scales are smooth; in 25–27 rows at midbody; ventrals 211–230; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 26–32. Maximum length 90cm, average 40–75cm; hatchling size unknown. The dorsal colour is shiny brown, and the back and lower edges of the dorsal scales are pale, especially on the flanks, giving the snake a speckled appearance. The underside is usually light, clear brown.

Habitat and Distribution: In the Sudan savanna and Sahel of West Africa, at low altitude, between sea level and 800m. It occurs eastwards from Senegal and the Gambia through Mali, Burkina Faso, northern Nigeria and Niger to western Chad, with an apparently isolated population in eastern Chad; it is nearly always between 11°N and 17°N. A curious record from south-western Cameroon is not shown on the map.

Natural History: Poorly known. It is nocturnal and terrestrial, usually underground, but active at night on the surface in the rainy season. If molested, it shows the usual distinctive burrowing asp response, arching the neck and pointing the head at the ground, looking like an inverted ‘U’, then writhing and hiding the head. It may also release a distinctive-smelling chemical from the cloaca. It presumably lays eggs. The diet comprises mostly lizards, but it might take other small vertebrates. It has been reported to be more common in Senegal than elsewhere.

Sahelian Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis micropholis.

Identification: A fairly large black burrowing asp of the savanna and Sahel of West and Central Africa. It is a stocky snake with a short, broad head. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, less than 10% of total length, ending in a spike. The scales are in 29–31 (occasionally 27) rows at midbody; ventrals 213–242; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 21–30. Maximum recorded length 72cm, average 30–65cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is black or brownish black above, and slightly lighter beneath.

Habitat and Distribution: The Sudan savanna and Sahel of West Africa, at low altitude, between sea level and 800m. It occurs eastwards from the Senegal–Mauritania border country through Mali, Burkina Faso, southern Niger and northern Nigeria to northern Cameroon, southern Chad and the extreme northern Central African Republic. A British Museum specimen from Juba, South Sudan, is probably another species.

Natural History: Poorly known. It is nocturnal and terrestrial, usually underground, but active at night on the ground. If molested, it shows the usual distinctive burrowing asp response, arching the neck and pointing the head at the ground, looking like an inverted ‘U’. It may also release a distinctive-smelling chemical from the cloaca. It presumably lays eggs. The diet comprises mostly reptiles, but it might take other small vertebrates.

Watson’s Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis watsoni.

Identification: A rare burrowing asp from Eritrea and nearby Sudan, and possibly Somalia and Ethiopia. It is a stocky snake with a short, broad head. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, less than 10% of total length, ending in a spike. The scales are in 25–29 rows at midbody; ventrals 228–248; cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 31–33. Maximum recorded length 65cm, average 30–60cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is uniformly black above, and slightly lighter beneath.

Habitat and Distribution: Known from semi-desert, dry savanna and semi-arid high plateau, between 400m and 2,400m. It has been recorded from a handful of localities in Eritrea and adjacent Sudan at Kassala. The type came from Mandafena, near Adi Keyh, at 2,400m in the mountains of central Eritrea, a curiously high-altitude location for a large burrowing asp. A handful of specimens from the border area between the northern Ogaden in Ethiopia and Somalia are tentatively also assigned to this species.

Natural History: Essentially unknown, but presumably similar to other burrowing asps.

Medical Significance: As for other burrowing asps with restricted ranges.

Identification: A fairly large steel-grey or black burrowing asp of central Sudan, South Sudan and western Ethiopia. It is a stocky snake with a short, broad head. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, less than 10% of total length, ending in a spike. The scales are in 29–33 rows at midbody; ventrals 222–252 (possibly as low as 211); cloacal scale entire; subcaudals single, 23–33. Maximum recorded length about 90cm, average 50–70cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is uniform black, steel grey or grey-black above and below.

Habitat and Distribution: Dry savanna, grassland and swamp, between 400m and 600m on the plains of the Sudanese and South Sudanese Nile. It occurs south from Khartoum, up the Blue Nile to Sinjah, up the White Nile to Juba, and east to Gambela and western Benishangul-Gumuz in Ethiopia.

Medical Significance: As for other burrowing asps with restricted ranges. Two victims who were bitten by the same 25cm snake received injections of antivenom. One recovered uneventfully, while the other lost the nail and tip of the finger to necrosis.

Taxonomic Notes: This species was re-elevated to species status from the synonymy of Atractaspis microlepidota by Don Broadley in 1994, following an examination of a snake collection from Al Jazirah State, Sudan.

Sudan Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis phillipsi.

Identification: A really large burrowing asp of the Horn of Africa and north-east East Africa. It is often stout, with a broad, blunt head. The body is cylindrical and the tail short, 7–9% of total length. The scales are smooth; in 27–37 rows at midbody; ventrals 227–257; cloacal entire; subcaudals single (occasionally paired, or a mixture of both), 20–39. One of the largest burrowing asps, reaching 1.1m in eastern Kenya; there are anecdotal reports of larger specimens, up to 1.3m, on the Kenyan coast. Average size 60–90cm; hatchling size unknown. The colour is quite variable, being black, grey, brown or often distinctly purple-brown; the scales may be iridescent. Coastal specimens are often light purple-brown, darkening towards the head, with the head and the neck black. Juveniles are often light brown. The belly is usually dark.

Natural History: Nocturnal and terrestrial; it is usually underground, but active at night on the surface in the rainy season. It is sometimes active by day. If molested, it shows the usual distinctive burrowing asp response, arching the neck and pointing the head at the ground, looking like an inverted ‘U’, then writhing and hiding the head. It may also release a distinctive-smelling chemical from the cloaca. Captive specimens have been photographed elevating the head and flaring the neck into a moderate hood, like a cobra. A Kenyan female laid eight eggs. The diet is snakes, smooth-bodied lizards and occasionally rodents. This species is said to be relatively common in parts of its range, especially the north Kenyan coast, from Kilifi to Malindi. In Somali areas it is known as ‘Jilbris’, ‘the snake of seven steps’ (meaning that if you are bitten, you take seven steps and die), or ‘father of 10 minutes’ (for obvious reasons). It is a very difficult snake to catch; large adults are strong, active and bite furiously if restrained.

Medical Significance: Widespread in the low and coastal regions of Kenya and Somalia, sometimes common, active on the ground at night and may enter buildings; it is also found in agricultural land, where people farm with short tools, so it is a significant snakebite hazard within parts of its range. The venom manifests itself as largely cytotoxic; swelling, pain, skin discolouration, subsequent lymphadenopathy and occasionally necrosis (especially to digit tips) resulted from bites. Occasional bites in Kenya have caused necrosis requiring excision or amputation. No anti-venom is available, and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. The large size of some adults means that bites may need effective symptomatic treatment.

Eastern Small-scaled Burrowing Asp, Atractaspis fallax.

Two species of colourful, small, slender front-fanged snakes, both endemic to southern Africa. They have been classified as elapids (their original common name was ‘dwarf garter snake’), but molecular work now indicates they belong in the subfamily Atractaspidinae. Due to their small size, restricted distribution and secretive way of life, they are of minor medical importance. No antivenom is available and no fatalities are recorded; a bite can be treated symptomatically.

Habitat and Distribution: In grassland, semi-desert, dry and moist savanna, thicket and heathland (fynbos), between sea level and 1,800m. This species is endemic to southern Africa. In South Africa it is found in most of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape, the southernmost part of the Northern Cape, Kwazulu-Natal, the eastern side of the Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and central Limpopo; there is an isolated population on the north-western coast in the Port Nolloth/Kleinsee area, and some historical records from around Kimberley. It is also found in western Eswatini (Swaziland) and on the western border of Lesotho.

Natural History: A ground-dwelling snake, usually in holes and rarely on the surface, except after rainstorms. It shelters in termite mounds, under rocks and in holes. If molested, it usually does not try to strike, but wriggles violently to try to get away. If handled, it will try to inflict slow, deliberate bites. It lays 6–16 eggs in the summer (December or January); these take about 50 days to hatch. The diet is mostly small snakes and lizards, including worm lizards.

Medical Significance: A rare, secretive snake with a relatively small range. No antivenom is available. No fatalities are reported and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically. A few bite cases were characterised by local pain, sometimes severe, swelling that was sometimes slow to resolve and lymphadenitis; one victim had a persistent headache, while another had local numbness. The venom does not seem to have been analysed, but the symptomology is similar to that from burrowing asp bites – perhaps not unexpectedly, as they are in the same clade.

Spotted Harlequin Snake, Homoroselaps lacteus.

Spotted Harlequin Snake, Homoroselaps lacteus.

Habitat and Distribution: In grassland, dry and moist savanna and coastal thicket, between sea level and 1,800m. This species is endemic to the eastern side of southern Africa. In South Africa it is found in the central Free State, Kwazulu-Natal, Gauteng, central Limpopo and north-eastern Mpumalanga, and it also occurs in western Eswatini (Swaziland).

Natural History: A ground-dwelling snake, usually under cover and rarely on the surface, except after rainstorms. It shelters in termite mounds, under rocks and in holes. If molested, it does not try to bite, but wriggles violently to try to get away. It lays 2–4 eggs in the summer (December or January). It eats worm snakes of the family Leptotyphlopidae.

Medical Significance: A rare, secretive snake with a relatively small range. No antivenom is available. No bites or fatalities are reported and the use of polyvalent antivenom is contraindicated; treat bites symptomatically.

Striped Harlequin Snake, Homoroselaps dorsalis.